Adult Swimmers Research Articles

Progression of Athletic Performance in Age-Group Swimmers in the Past 50 Years

The progression or evolution of athletic performance in age-group swimmers was studied by analyzing top youth swimmers’ times recorded in the past 50 years. In both boys and girls, the largest improvements were observed from 1960s to 1970s. Thereafter, swimming performance continued to improve although the magnitude of improvements became progressively smaller. Relative improvements in youth swimming performance time were not different from those in the Olympic trial times achieved by elite adult swimmers. Overall, the relative improvements of swimming performance over the years were not different between boys and girls. These results suggest that athletic performance achieved by youth swimmers has undergone similar degree of improvements to elite adult swimmers in the past 50 years.

Effects of Bone-Conducted Music on Swimming Performance

Music has been shown to be a useful adjunct for many forms of exercise and has been observed to improve athletic performance in some settings. Nonetheless, because of the limited availability of practical applications of sound conduction in water, there are few studies of the effects of music on swimming athletes. The SwiMP3 is a novel device that uses bone conduction as a method to circumvent the obstacles to transmitting high fidelity sound in an aquatic environment. Thus, we studied the influence of music on swimming performance and enjoyment using the SwiMP3. Twenty-four competitive swimmers participated in a randomized crossover design study in which they completed timed swimming trials with and without the use of music delivered via bone conduction with the SwiMP3. Each participant swam four 50-m trials and one 800-m trial and then completed a physical enjoyment survey. Statistically significant improvements in swimming performance times were found in both the 50-m (0.32 seconds; p = 0.013) and 800-m (6.5 seconds; p = 0.031) trials with music using the SwiMP3. There was no significant improvement in physical enjoyment with the device as measured by a validated assessment tool. Bone-conducted music appears to have a salutary influence on swimming performance in a practice environment among competitive adult swimmers.

Body image and the female swimmer: muscularity but in moderation

The purpose of this study was to investigate embodiment in a cohort of female swimmers. Relatively limited consideration has been given to body image in female swimmers and this study endeavoured to provide the first formal comparative insight into embodiment in adolescent swimmers and adult swimmers. Nineteen Scottish female swimmers took part in focus groups and interviews where they discussed issues related to body image; eight were adolescent swimmers aged between 14 and 18 years and 11 were adult swimmers aged between 19 and 56 years. The focus groups and interviews were analysed using inductive thematic analysis. The analysis identified three body image themes associated with swimming: the impact of swimming on the body – muscularity but in moderation, body confidence as transient: age matters, and the influence of others. Swimmers developed muscular bodies that were considered contrary to the cultural thin ideal. There were clear differences between the different age groups in respect of the transiency of body satisfaction whereby adult swimmers transferred their swimming confidence into their social worlds but this was not the case for adolescent swimmers. Implications of the findings for coaches working with young female swimmers are discussed.

Mere visual experience impacts preference for body shape: evidence from male competitive swimmers

Theoretical and empirical studies suggest that phenotypic averageness is a sign of an individual's high biological quality. The averageness should therefore be preferred in mates. A condition for such preference is the knowledge of average phenotype in the population. It is envisaged that an individual develops a neural template of typical phenotype on the basis of perceptual experience with images of conspecifics, and the template is then used in attractiveness assessments of potential partners. Regrettably, studies supporting this view are lacking. In the present study, adult male competitive swimmers and men who did not partake in swimming assessed the attractiveness of female silhouettes with proportions typical for swimmers or non-swimmers. Because swimmers see other swimmers relatively frequently, we hypothesize that they prefer swimmer-like female silhouettes more strongly than non-swimmers do. The analysis supports this hypothesis, suggesting that mere visual experience shapes a neural template of a silhouette, which subsequently serves as a reference for attractiveness evaluations.

First Documented Attack on a Live Human by a Cookiecutter Shark (Squaliformes, Dalatiidae: Isistius sp.)

Abstract: An adult long-distance swimmer attempting to cross the ‘Alenuihāhā Channel between the Hawaiian islands of Hawai'i and Maui was twice bitten by a cookiecutter shark (Squaliformes, Dalatiidae, Isistius sp.). One of these bites presented as an open, round, concave wound typically observed in cookiecutter shark bites inflicted by members of this genus on a broad spectrum of large biota such as marine mammals, elasmobranchs, and bony fishes. The open wound was debrided, subjected to negative pressure wound therapy, and a split thickness skin graft harvested from the left thigh. Postoperative recovery was complicated by delayed healing of the inferior portion of the graft, and cultures and biopsy were normal skin flora and normal tissue, respectively. At 6 months after the incident, the area appeared to be healing with a stable eschar, and by 9 months the wound was healed. Humans entering pelagic waters at twilight and nighttime hours in areas of Isistius sp. occurrence should do so knowing that cook...

Attendance at chlorinated indoor pools and risk of asthma in adult recreational swimmers

To study a potential correlation between attendance at chlorinated indoor pools and the onset of asthma in adult leisure swimmers. 1136 adult swimmers attending indoor pools in the city of Verona completed a modified ECRHS questionnaire. The cumulative time spent in the pools was calculated on the basis of the mean frequency and duration of weekly swim activity for every year of attendance. The median value (320 h) was used to divide participants into 2 groups. Other questions concerned the family history of allergies, the medical diagnosis and the onset of asthma. The prevalence of respiratory symptoms in the study group was compared with that of a general population sample. New-onset asthma, first identified at least 12 months after the start of regular pool attendance, was more prevalent among swimmers characterized by a higher cumulative pool attendance (23/514, 4.5%) than in swimmers who were attending indoor pools less frequently (2/508, 0.4%; ratio 11.1, 95% CI 2.6–47.4). The statistical analysis revealed an independent association between the cumulative lifetime hours spent in indoor swimming pools and new onset asthma (relative risk 1.05, 95% CI 1.02–1.07). Respiratory symptoms were less frequent in the study population versus a general population sample (prevalence ratio 0.26–0.68). Attendance at chlorinated indoor pools may constitute a risk factor for developing asthma in leisure adult swimmers. Future research and efforts should aim at improving disinfection techniques, hygiene and ventilation in indoor swimming pools in order to provide an unobjectionable ambient for salubrious swim activities.

Microbial load from animal feces at a recreational beach

The goal of this study was to quantify the microbial load (enterococci) contributed by the different animals that frequent a beach site. The highest enterococci concentrations were observed in dog feces with average levels of 3.9×107CFU/g; the next highest enterococci levels were observed in birds averaging 3.3×105CFU/g. The lowest measured levels of enterococci were observed in material collected from shrimp fecal mounds (2.0CFU/g). A comparison of the microbial loads showed that 1 dog fecal event was equivalent to 6940 bird fecal events or 3.2×108 shrimp fecal mounds. Comparing animal contributions to previously published numbers for human bather shedding indicates that one adult human swimmer contributes approximately the same microbial load as one bird fecal event. Given the abundance of animals observed on the beach, this study suggests that dogs are the largest contributing animal source of enterococci to the beach site.

Hydrodynamic Drag during Gliding in Swimming

This study used a computational fluid dynamics methodology to analyze the effect of body position on the drag coefficient during submerged gliding in swimming. The k-epsilon turbulent model implemented in the commercial code Fluent and applied to the flow around a three-dimensional model of a male adult swimmer was used. Two common gliding positions were investigated: a ventral position with the arms extended at the front, and a ventral position with the arms placed along side the trunk. The simulations were applied to flow velocities of between 1.6 and 2.0 m x s(-1), which are typical of elite swimmers when gliding underwater at the start and in the turns. The gliding position with the arms extended at the front produced lower drag coefficients than with the arms placed along the trunk. We therefore recommend that swimmers adopt the arms in front position rather than the arms beside the trunk position during the underwater gliding.

Contribution Of Form Drag And Skin Friction Drag During The Swimming Gliding

In human swimming, the total drag comprises the skin friction drag, form drag and wave drag. The relative contribution of each component to the overall hydrodynamic drag is controversy issue. PURPOSE: To analyse the relative contribution of the skin friction drag and the form drag for the total drag during the gliding, using computational fluid dynamics. METHODS: A 3-D domain was created to simulate the fluid flow around a swimmer model. The numerical simulation analysis consisted of the use of a three-dimensional mesh of cells that simulates the flow around the human body. Computational fluid dynamics methodology uses the finite volume approach, where the equations are integrated over each control volume. The k-epsilon turbulent model was applied to the flow around a three-dimensional model of a male adult swimmer in two gliding positions: in ventral position with the arms extended at the front and in ventral position with the arms aside the trunk. The swimmer model middle line was placed at a water depth of 0.90 m, equidistant from the top and bottom surfaces of the 3-D domain. The coefficient of drag (CD) was computed using a steady flow velocity of 2 m/s for both gliding situations. The CD was decomposed into form and skin friction drag. RESULTS: The position with the arms extended at the front presented a CD value of 0.43 whereas the position with the arms aside the trunk presented a CD value of 0.74. In the position with the arms extended at the front, form drag and skin friction drag represented, approximately, 87% (CD = 0.37) and 13% (CD = 0.06) of the total drag, respectively. In the position with the arms aside the trunk, form drag and skin friction drag represented, approximately, 92% (CD = 0.68) and 8% (CD = 0.06) of the total drag, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The gliding position with the arms extended at the front produced lower drag coefficients than with the arms placed aside the trunk. Although form drag was dominant, skin friction drag was by no means negligible during the swimming gliding. Supported by FCT (SFRH/BD/25241/2005; POCTI/DES/58872/2004).

Analyses of Elite Swimming Performances and Their Respective Between-Gender Differences over Time

The current study analyzed historical performance data in order to contribute to the understanding of the development of elite athletes. Data for elite adult and youth swimmers from 1962 to 2007 were employed to identify changes in American swimming records and in the performances of elite American youth swimmers. Over this period, 11 of the 12 men's and women's American records analyzed are improving at an ever slowing rate. This trend parallels the resultant analyses herein from elite youth swimmers, suggesting a possible limit to reaching elite athletic performance. Unique gender differences by event for both elite adult and youth swimmers were also revealed. Results imply that genotype plays a role in elite athletic performance. Additionally, possible reasons and ramifications of these findings are proffered.

Airway hyperresponsiveness and airway inflammation in elite swimmers

The prevalence of respiratory symptoms and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) is high in elite athletes; swimmers have one of the highest prevalences. No consensus exists on what airway challenge to use when identifying AHR in elite athletes. Further, knowledge is sparse about when during their active sport career AHR develops and if there is an acute effect on the airway inflammation of a swimming training session. We aimed to (i) evaluate the airway response to a methacholine challenge, a eucapnic voluntary hyperpnoea (EVH) test, a field-based exercise test (FBT) and a laboratory-based exercise test (LBT) in adult elite swimmers; (ii) investigate airway responsiveness and airway inflammation in adolescent elite swimmers; and (iii) evaluate the acute effect of a training session in an indoor swimming pool on airway inflammation in adolescent elite swimmers. Two groups were studied. (i) In adult elite swimmers (n = 16), we examined airway response in four airway provocation tests: methacholine challenge, EVH test, FBT and LBT. (ii) In adolescent elite swimmers (n = 33), we examined airway responsiveness to EVH and methacholine, and airway inflammation and compared the findings with those in asthmatic adolescents (n = 32) and unselected adolescents (n = 35). Further, we examined the acute effect of swimming on airway inflammation in a subpopulation of the adolescent swimmers (n = 21). Airway inflammation was evaluated using sputum induction, measurements of exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and exhaled breath condensate (EBC). Of 16 adult swimmers, eight (50%) had AHR; five of the eight (63%) were identified with the EVH test, four (50%) with the FBT, four (50%) with the LBT and none with the methacholine challenge [provocative dose of methacholine causing a 20% fall in FEV1 (PD(20)) <or= 2 micromol]. There were no differences in the prevalence of AHR to either EVH or methacholine (PD(20) <or= 8 micromol) among the adolescent swimmers, the asthmatic adolescents and the unselected adolescents. When looking at airway responsiveness as a continuous variable, the swimmers were more responsive to EVH than were the unselected subjects, and less responsive to methacholine than were the asthmatic adolescents. There were no differences in FeNO, EBC pH or in the cellular composition of the sputum among the three groups. Lung function, FeNO, EBC pH, EBC lactate and differential cell counts in sputum were not acutely affected by the swimming session. We found that the EVH test is the most sensitive test for identifying AHR in elite athletes when using the diagnostic criteria set forward by the International Olympic Committe. Whereas a high prevalence of AHR in adult swimmers was found, the prevalence of AHR in the adolescent swimmers did not differ from that in unselected adolescents nor did the adolescent swimmers have signs of airway inflammation. There was no acute effect of a swimming training session in an indoor chlorinated pool on lung function or airway composition in adolescent swimmers. We believe that elite swimming results in airway changes with AHR and airway inflammation.

Athlete's heart in prepubertal male swimmers

To determine the cardiac response to intensive endurance training during prepuberty, we studied 22 male prebubertal swimmers who had been trained for at least 3 years, with a mean of 3.91 years and a standard deviation of 1.10 years, and 8 hours per week, the mean being 10.0 hours and the standard deviation 1.7 hours. The control group consisted of 21 boys of similar age, height and weight (p is more than 0.05 for all), who were not participating regularly in sporting activities. Left ventricular dimensions and systolic function were examined with M-Mode; velocities and durations of transmitral flow were measured with pulsed wave Doppler; and tissue Doppler velocities and durations were measured with pulsed wave tissue Doppler echocardiography. We determined the regional velocities of the lateral mitral annulus in four-chamber position, the left ventricular posterolateral wall, and the midseptum in long-axis position. Interventricular septal thickness, left ventricular posterior wall thickness, left ventricular mass and relative wall thickness were increased in swimmers (p is less than 0.05). All the tissue Doppler measurements were similar in both groups, except the septal isovolumic relaxation time. We observed that the left ventricular wall thickness had increased concentrically in prepubertal swimmers compared to controls, without a significant change in the left ventricular diastolic diameter. This finding is contrary to the previous studies on adult swimmers. Whether the structural changes observed in our study reflect the unique cardiac adaptation of the hearts of children to exercise will only be disclosed by longitudinal studies of prepubertal athletes.

Impact of different groups of swimmers on dolphins in swim-with-the-dolphin programs in two settings

In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular, and an increasing number of facilities worldwide are offering therapy programs that incorporate dolphins. We observed 83 sessions with five dolphins at “Dolphins Plus,” USA, and 37 sessions with 13 dolphins at “Dolphin Reef.” Israel, during unstructured swim-with-the-dolphin programs. Both facilities are fenced sea pens with ocean water. Our detailed observations focused on contact and distance behaviors between dolphins and amongst dolphins with different groups of human swimmers: adults, children and children with mental and physical disabilities at “Dolphins Plus,” and adults only at “Dolphin Reef.” The dolphins at “Dolphins Plus” showed some signs of stress such as avoidance, speed increase, higher metabolism and intensification of a subgroup. These signs were most evident when the dolphins were with adult swimmers. In contrast, the dolphins at “Dolphin Reef” seemed to be attracted to adult swimmers. We will discuss these opposing findings with reference to the different housing conditions. Our results indicate that limited space results in a reduction of the dolphins' attraction for swimmers.

Swimming

The aim of this study was to analyse the variations of stroking parameters (speed, stroke length, stroke rate, and stroke index) associated with the 200 m front crawl competitive performance improvement. Two races completed by 17 top swimmers were analysed in the 200 m freestyle final of French or European championships, each final being separated by two years. All the swimmers’ performances were bettered in the second race (mean±SD: 113.44±2.50 vs 111.78±2.71 s; p <0.01) and were associated with a significant increase of stroke rate without variation of average stroke length and stroke index values (p > 0.05). Swimmers emphasized the first part of the race, with higher speed in the first three lengths, higher stroke rate in the first two lengths and lower stroke length in the first one. Stroke length and stroke rate variations were highly correlated (r = 0.98; p < 0.05). In 11 of the 17 swimmers, the improvement was concomitant with a decrease in stroke length and an increase in stroke rate. Only one swimmer's improvement was associated with a substantial increase in stroke length. These results highlighted that stroke length and stroke index cannot be considered as the only parameters linked to improvement in a 200 m crawl in adult swimmers competing at high standard. Moreover, an increase in stroke rate associated with a slight decrease in stroke length should not be considered as ineffective, especially at top standard.

Characteristics of glycemic control in elite power and endurance athletes

A previous study has shown that former elite power athletes exhibited significantly greater relative risk in diabetes than that of former elite endurance athletes. It is unknown whether insulin sensitivity in elite young healthy power athletes is lower than that in elite young endurance athletes. This study includes two parts, part I and part II. In the part I of this study, an oral glucose tolerance test was performed in all of the elite juvenile track athlete subjects, specializing either in short-distance racing (jSD, N = 13, aged 12.5 ± 0.37 years) or in long-distance racing (jLD, N = 13, aged 12.6 ± 0.42 years). In the part II of this study, we recruited elite adult swimmers and divided them into two groups according to their specialty in swimming race distance: long-distance (aLD, N = 10, age 20.3 ± 1.32) and short-distance groups (aSD, N = 10, age 20.2 ± 1.31). Insulin sensitivity was significantly lower in the jSD group than that in the jLD group, as indicated by the area under the curves of insulin and glucose following a 75-g oral glucose load. Fasting plasma LDL-C and total cholesterol levels in the jSD group were significantly greater than those in the jLD group. The result of the part II of this study, similar to the result of the part I, shows that insulin sensitivity in aSD swimmers was significantly lower than that in aLD swimmers. LDL-C, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels were also found higher in aSD swimmers than in those of aLD swimmers. These new findings implicate that the genetic makeup associated with exceptional power or endurance performance of elite athletes could also reflect on their metabolic characteristics; elite power athletes appear to be more insulin resistant than elite endurance athletes.

Relationship of Age and Swim Training Distance with Body Composition in Adult Male Swimmers

0507 PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between age and weekly swim distance with body composition in adult male competitive swimmers. METHODS: Twentyeight healthy adult male U.S. Masters Swimmers 23 to 73 years of age volunteered to participate (mean age = 46.8 years). Weekly swim distance averaged 9846 m, and ranged from 3400 to 17,500 m. During a single laboratory session all subjects were assessed by: height, weight, waist circumference, abdominal sagittal diameter, skinfold thicknesses of three trunk sites and three peripheral sites, multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and whole body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). RESULTS: Mean values were as follows: body mass index (kg/m2) = 25.0 ± 2.6 (range = 21.9 – 31.6); waist circumference = 90.6 ± 8.9 cm (range = 77.5 to 112.0 cm); abdominal sagittal diameter = 12.8 ± 3.1 cm (range = 8.0 – 19.2 cm); trunk skinfolds = 41.2 ± 13.0 mm (range = 14.7 – 70.7 mm); and extremities skinfolds = 22.4 ± 7.4 mm (range = 10.3 – 42.5 mm). Percent body fat by DEXA averaged 21.9 ± 6.4% and ranged from 10.3 to 34.9%. Bone mineral density averaged 1.269 gm/cm2 ± .110 and ranged from 1.066 to 1.519 gm/cm2. The extracellular-to-total body water ratio (ECW/TBW) averaged .41 ± .02 and ranged from .38 to .45, and the total body water-to-fat-free mass (TBW/FFM) averaged .72 and ranged from .71 to .74. Subject age was associated with abdominal sagittal diameter (partial r = .41, P = .034) and ECW/TBW (partial r = .72, P = .00). The relationship between age and fat-free mass hydration approached significance (partial r = .37, P = .06) as did that between age and waist circumference (partial r = .33, P = .09). No association was observed between subject age and percent body fat, skinfold thicknesses, or bone mineral density. Average weekly swim distance did not appear to be related to any of the measured body composition variables. CONCLUSIONS: Despite variations in percent body fat and subcutaneous fat deposits in adult male swimmers, these differences were not associated with subject age or weekly swim training distance. Greater swimmer age was related to more thickness in the lower trunk and increased levels of extracellular water as compared to total body water. Supported by Louisiana State University Council on Research Summer Stipend Program.

Relationship of Age and Swim Training Distance with Body Composition in Adult Male Swimmers

0507 PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between age and weekly swim distance with body composition in adult male competitive swimmers. METHODS: Twentyeight healthy adult male U.S. Masters Swimmers 23 to 73 years of age volunteered to participate (mean age = 46.8 years). Weekly swim distance averaged 9846 m, and ranged from 3400 to 17,500 m. During a single laboratory session all subjects were assessed by: height, weight, waist circumference, abdominal sagittal diameter, skinfold thicknesses of three trunk sites and three peripheral sites, multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and whole body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). RESULTS: Mean values were as follows: body mass index (kg/m2) = 25.0 ± 2.6 (range = 21.9 – 31.6); waist circumference = 90.6 ± 8.9 cm (range = 77.5 to 112.0 cm); abdominal sagittal diameter = 12.8 ± 3.1 cm (range = 8.0 – 19.2 cm); trunk skinfolds = 41.2 ± 13.0 mm (range = 14.7 – 70.7 mm); and extremities skinfolds = 22.4 ± 7.4 mm (range = 10.3 – 42.5 mm). Percent body fat by DEXA averaged 21.9 ± 6.4% and ranged from 10.3 to 34.9%. Bone mineral density averaged 1.269 gm/cm2 ± .110 and ranged from 1.066 to 1.519 gm/cm2. The extracellular-to-total body water ratio (ECW/TBW) averaged .41 ± .02 and ranged from .38 to .45, and the total body water-to-fat-free mass (TBW/FFM) averaged .72 and ranged from .71 to .74. Subject age was associated with abdominal sagittal diameter (partial r = .41, P = .034) and ECW/TBW (partial r = .72, P = .00). The relationship between age and fat-free mass hydration approached significance (partial r = .37, P = .06) as did that between age and waist circumference (partial r = .33, P = .09). No association was observed between subject age and percent body fat, skinfold thicknesses, or bone mineral density. Average weekly swim distance did not appear to be related to any of the measured body composition variables. CONCLUSIONS: Despite variations in percent body fat and subcutaneous fat deposits in adult male swimmers, these differences were not associated with subject age or weekly swim training distance. Greater swimmer age was related to more thickness in the lower trunk and increased levels of extracellular water as compared to total body water. Supported by Louisiana State University Council on Research Summer Stipend Program.

Self-monitoring as an intervention to decrease swimmers' stroke counts.

Self-monitoring of stroke count by swimmers is a common coaching strategy, it is but one that has little data to support it. Although research has demonstrated that self-monitoring can motivate behavior change, little research has focused on whether self-monitoring can enhance skill development. The purpose of the present set of studies was to examine the effects of self-monitoring on the improvement of a specific swimming skill (i.e., stroke count). Eight adult fitness swimmers and three college-level competitive swimmers participated in Study 1. In an A-B-A design, swimmers were observed to reduce stroke counts by about one stroke per lap when instructed to self-monitor and to verbally report strokes. In Study 2. swimmers self-monitored and visually reported strokes on a dry-erase board. A greater improvement was observed in five out of six swimmers. Across studies, stroke counts generally returned to baseline levels when self-monitoring was ended, and improvements during both self-monitoring phases were the greatest in the weakest swimmers. Limitations of the research, mechanisms of change, and implications for coaches are discussed.

An information theory analysis of duration of lifeguards' scanning.

Observers recorded the duration of scanning by six lifeguards in three indoor swimming pools. Duration of scanning was significantly predicted by the absolute numbers of child swimmers (< 17 years) in the pools and when numbers of child swimmers were represented in terms of bits of information. Duration of scanning increased as a linear function of both numbers of children and child bits of information. These results are interpreted in terms of the Hick-Hyman law of information theory. Lifeguards appear to simplify the task of information processing and decision-making by concentrating on children as a more at-risk group of swimmers. Duration of scanning was not significantly related to changes in number of adult swimmers.

AN INFORMATION THEORY ANALYSIS OF DURATION OF LIFEGUARDS' SCANNING

Observers recorded the duration of scanning by six lifeguards in three indoor swimming pools. Duration of scanning was significantly predicted by the absolute numbers of child swimmers (< 17 years) in the pools and when numbers of child swimmers were represented in terms of bits of information. Duration of scanning increased as a linear function of both numbers of children and child bits of information. These results are interpreted in terms of the Hick-Hyman law of information theory. Lifeguards appear to simplify the task of information processing and decision-making by concentrating on children as a more at-risk group of swimmers. Duration of scanning was not significantly related to changes in number of adult swimmers.