Adult Red Deer Research Articles

Female perception of size-related formant shifts in red deer, Cervus elaphus

Little is known about the role of specific acoustic cues in mammal vocal communication systems. Recent advances in bioacoustics allow us to use playback experiments in order to study the perceptual and functional relevance of individual acoustic parameters. In the current study we used re-synthesised male red deer roars in a habituation-discrimination paradigm to determine whether female red deer are sensitive to shifts in formant frequencies corresponding to the natural variation between the vocal tract lengths of a small and large adult red deer male. We found that hinds habituated to a given size variant show a significant dishabituation when they are presented with roars in which the formants have been modified to simulate the other size variant. The significant reduction in behavioural response to a final rehabituation playback shows this was not a chance rebound in response levels. Our results indicate that formants are salient for red deer hinds and that hinds can detect a shift in formant frequencies that has strong potential biological significance. We discuss the possible functions of formant perception in female red deer and more generally in nonhuman mammals.

Survival and Cause-specific Mortality of Red Deer Cervus Elaphus in Białowieża National Park, Poland

Information is needed from protected populations of game species to help understand natural rates of mortality, and as a means for comparisons with populations hunted by human beings. Additionally, little is known about red deer Cervus elaphus survival in historic habitat with large carnivores present. During 2001-2004, we estimated survival and cause-specific mortality of 35 red deer in the Białowieża National Park (BNP), Poland. The BNP contains the last remnant of old-growth lowland forests in Europe, and both predator and prey populations are protected from human exploitation. For all deer, survival did not differ among years or seasons. Annual survival of all deer was 56%, and survival rates were similar for adult males (75%) and females (64%), but was higher for adults (71%) than for young (15%). Predation, primarily caused by wolves Canis lupus, was the most common source of mortality (10 of 12 red deer deaths) and contributed most to the differences in survival between adult and young red deer.

161 SUCCESSFUL INTERSPECIFIC PREGNANCY AFTER TRANSFER OF IN VITRO-PRODUCED SIKA DEER (CERVUS NIPPON NIPPON) EMBRYO IN RED DEER (CERVUS ELAPHUS HIPPELAPHUS) SURROGATE HIND

The aim of the present study was to assess the in vivo competence of in vitro-produced sika deer (Cervus nippon nippon) embryos after freezing–thawing and transfer into red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) recipients. During the breeding season, 11 adult sika deer hinds were synchronized as oocyte donors with an intravaginal sponge (45 mg of fluorogestone acetate, FGA) inserted for 12 days and removed immediately after laparoscopic ovum pick-up (LOPU), and renewed after 3 days. Ovarian stimulation was induced with an i.m. injection of 75 µg of cloprostenol (Estrumate) given on Day 8, followed by 3 i.m. injections of 0.1, 0.1, and 0.05 IU of ovine FSH (Ovagen) on Days 10 and 11 at 12-h intervals. On Day 12, hinds were anesthetized and oocytes were collected by LOPU from follicles >2 mm using an 18 G needle under moderate vacuum. COC were recovered and morphologically evaluated for quality (graded from 1 to 5). COC were then submitted to in vitro maturation, fertilization, and culture (IVM, IVF, and IVC) as described previously (Locatelli Y et al. 2005 Theriogenology 64, 1729–1739). For IVC, embryos were co-cultured with a monolayer of ovine oviduct epithelial cells in synthetic oviduct fluid medium supplemented with 10% FCS. On Day 8 post-insemination, all sika deer embryos at the blastocyst stage were cryopreserved via a standard bovine slow-freezing protocol. Of 44 LOPU sessions performed during the 1-month study, an average of 7.5 � 0.38 follicles were aspirated (mean � SEM), allowing the recovery of 3.65 � 0.38 COC per hind and per session, of which 80.0% were suitable for IVM (grades 1 and 2). Of 142 oocytes recovered, 57 cleaved after IVF (40.1%), and 14 embryos (24.6% of cleaved) reached the blastocyst stage after 8 days. At the end of the breeding season, 7 adult red deer hinds were synchronized as embryo recipients by inserting 2 intravaginal sponges per female (90 mg of FGA), for 13 days. Injections (i.m.) of 400 IU of eCG and 125 µg of cloprostenol (Estrumate) were administered 72 h before sponge removal. At Day 8 after sponge removal, straws containing frozen embryos were thawed and cryoprotectant was removed as described previously (see Locatelli Y et al. 2005 Theriogenology 64, 1729–1739). Two sika deer embryos were surgically transferred into uterine horn (unilaterally) of each red deer recipient. One of 7 red deer recipients was diagnosed pregnant by ultrasonography on Day 56. A healthy male sika deer fawn was born unassisted after 224 days of gestation. No complications were observed in initial recognition of the sika deer fawn by the red deer surrogate mother, nor in subsequent interactions. To our knowledge, this is the first report of an interspecific pregnancy obtained after in vitro embryo production and embryo transfer in deer species. In conclusion, interspecific embryo transfer after IVP may represent a useful tool for the preservation and amplification of captive residual populations of endangered deer species. Further studies are required to increase the rate of cleavage after LOPU-IVF as well as viability of frozen–thawed IVP embryos.

EVALUATION OF THREE STRATEGIC PARASITE CONTROL PROGRAMS IN CAPTIVE WILD RUMINANTS

Parasite control in wild ruminants is based mainly on anthelmintics. The objective of the present study was to evaluate three parasite control programs in seven herds of captive wild ruminants in 3 consecutive years. In the first year, a biannual spring-summer treatment regime with fenbendazole at 7.5 mg/kg body weight p.o. for 3 days was applied. The next year, an early-season treatment program with three administrations of fenbendazole at the same dosage at 3-wk intervals was used. In the third year, an early-season treatment program with ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg p.o. for 3 days), applied three times at 5-wk intervals, was evaluated. Effectiveness of these control programs was assessed by fecal egg counts and by scores of body condition and fecal consistency at weekly intervals. Involved animal species were Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah), slender-horned gazelle (Gazella leptoceros), Soay sheep (Ovis aries soay), ibex (Capra ibex), red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus), and Nelson's elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni). With the spring-summer regime, fecal egg counts remained low during the first 5 mo, but from September onward, they slowly increased to significant levels in all seven herds. The early-season program with fenbendazole resulted in fecal egg counts near zero during the entire year in four herds but a significant egg shedding from August onward was noted in Arabian oryx, scimitar-horned oryx, and Soay sheep. The early-season program with ivermectin resulted in very low to zero egg shedding in gazelle, adult Soay sheep, ibex, red deer, and Nelson's elk during the entire grazing season, but failed to prevent high shedding in October in Arabian oryx and scimitar-horned oryx. High contamination of grassy pastures with infective larvae/eggs in the previous year or before the first treatment may explain failure of the treatment regimes in some herds.

Definitive Differentiation between Single and Mixed Mycobacterial Infections in Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) by a Combination of Duplex Amplification of p34 and f57 Sequences and Hpy188I Enzymatic Restriction of Duplex Amplicons

Severe emaciation and mortalities suggestive of mycobacterial infections were recently reported for both adult and young wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the southeastern part of Belgium. In deer, tuberculous lesions are not pathognomonic of Mycobacterium bovis infection due to gross and microscopic similarities with lesions caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis or M. avium subsp. avium. The aim of this study was to improve molecular methods for the species-specific identification of M. bovis, M. avium subsp. avium, and M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in mycobacterial infections of deer. DNA banding patterns were assessed prior to and after Hpy188I restriction of f57-upstream (us)-p34 duplex amplicons. The duplex f57-us-p34 PCR differentiated M. bovis from M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis and M. avium subsp. avium infections, whereas the restriction step differentiated single M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis or M. avium subsp. avium infections from mixed M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis/M. avium subsp. avium infections. The endonuclease Hpy188I cleaves DNA between nucleotides N and G in the unique TCNGA sequence. This restriction site was found at position 168 upstream of the us-p34 initiation codon in all M. avium subsp. avium strains tested, regardless of their origin and the results of IS901 PCR. In contrast, the restriction site was abrogated in all M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis strains tested, independent of their origin, Mycobactin J dependency, and IS900 PCR results. Consequently, a two-step strategy, i.e., duplex us-p34-f57 PCR and Hpy188I restriction, allowed us to exclude M. bovis infection and to identify single (M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis or M. avium subsp. avium) or mixed (M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis/M. avium subsp. avium) infections in wild red deer in Belgium. Accordingly, we propose to integrate, in a functional molecular definition of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis, the absence of the Hpy188I restriction site from the us-p34 amplicon.

Selectivity of wolf predation on red deer in the Bieszczady Mountains, Poland

A pattern of wolfCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 predation on red deerCervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 was studied in Bieszczady Mountains in 1991–2002. In total 324 remains of red deer > 4 months old, killed by wolves throughout the year, were found. The sex, age and bone marrow fat content of wolf kills were compared with the same characteristics within the free living red deer population. The overall contribution of calves killed by wolves (24%) in October-May was higher than in the population (17%), and decreased from autumn to spring. Adult males were more vulnerable to wolf predation than adult females: stags constituted 62% and hinds 38% of adult red deer killed by wolves, whereas in the population, the percentages were 37 and 63%, respectively. Stags killed by wolves were younger (\(\bar x = 4.1\) years old) than hinds (\(\bar x = 8.9\) years old). Wolves killed more > 8 years old hinds and < 5 years old stags than available in the population. In wolf kills, the average fat content in femur marrow was higher among hinds (84.9%) than stags (69.3%) and calves (66.1%). Only 8% of hinds had < 70% femur marrow fat content, whereas 40% of calves and 38% of stags had marrow fat values below that level. Marrow fat content showed seasonal variation and was the lowest in March among all sex-age classes. The monthly share of stags in all kills, and hinds in hind-calf part of the sample was negatively correlated with their monthly average bone marrow fat content, and monthly share of calves was positively correlated with monthly average bone marrow fat content of adults. The segregation of social units (hind-calf and stag groups), except during the rutting season, and the low fat reserves of males from midwinter until spring contribute to the high overall incidence of calves and adult males and the relatively low incidence of adult females among wolf kills.

Cilia-associated Respiratory (CAR) Bacillus Infection in Adult Red Deer, Chamois, and Roe Deer

Cilia-associated respiratory (CAR) bacillus is an unclassified bacterium that colonizes the ciliated epithelium of airways in laboratory rats, laboratory mice, and laboratory and conventionally reared rabbits, cattle, goats, and pigs. Data on the prevalence of CAR bacillus infection in wild animals are lacking. The present study demonstrated the occurrence of the organism in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from the Val Fontana in northern Italy. Prevalence ranged from 26% for red deer to 56% for chamois, with a statistically significant negative correlation between CAR bacilli infection and the presence of lymphoid follicles.

ASSESSING REAL DAILY DISTANCE TRAVELED BY UNGULATES USING DIFFERENTIAL GPS LOCATIONS

Abstract Differential Global Positioning System technology can provide series of accurate locations of free-ranging animals with a short, fixed interval. The sum of straight-line distances between valid locations (y) plotted against number of attempted fixes per day (x) should fit a hyperbolic function (i.e., y = x/[ax − b]) after removing inaccurate fixes and inactive periods. Its asymptotic value (1/a) can provide an estimate of real travel distance. The ratio of 1/a and y is a correction factor to apply to perceived straight-line distance to estimate real distance traveled. We achieved a good model fit on free-ranging adult red deer (Cervus elaphus) from data obtained every 15 min for a male and a female in winter 1997–1998, with a narrow range of correction factors. To validate this model, we used independent datasets from 3 other adult red deer roaming in the same area in winter 2000. We applied the procedure to distances perceived with fixed intervals ranging from 30 to 240 min and found consistent ...

Influence of snow cover on wolf Canis lupus predation patterns in Bieszczady Mountains, Poland

Sex, age, bone marrow fat (BMF) content, degree of carcass utilisation and terrain features were analysed for 118 ungulates killed by wolves Canis lupus in the Bieszczady Mountains, Poland, during the winters of 1992–1995 to assess the influence of snow depth on the wolves' predation patterns. In Bieszczady, the snow conditions during the study period were milder than average, with an average total annual snow depth of 1,372 cm and an average snow cover lasting for 94 days. Red deer Cervus elaphus were the primary wolf prey (81%), whereas wild boar Sus scrofa and roe deer Capreolus capreolus were killed less often (9% and 10%, respectively). The majority of prey (74%) was killed in creeks and ravines. The carcass exploitation by wolves was high; of the recovered prey, 55% was more than 60% consumed. The average condition of red deer, as based on BMF, was high (83.4%). BMF varied most among red deer stags and calves, and varied with annual snow depth (N = 29, P &lt; 0.0 1; N = 28, P = 0.09) and monthly mean snow depth (τ = ‐0.37, P &lt; 0.005; τ = ‐0.25, P = 0.06). Wolves killed adult red deer in creeks and ravines with the same frequency regardless of snow depth, whereas calves were killed less often in these places than should be expected from their overall proportion in the sample (N = 95, χ2 = 24.34, P &lt; 0.001). During periods with thinner snow cover, consumption of red deer carcasses was slightly higher than during periods in which the snow cover was deep (τ = ‐0.42, P &lt; 0.045).

Pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur in red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Twelve adult female red deer (Cervus elaphus) were given 250 mg of ceftiofur sodium by intramuscular injection (i.m.) and ballistic implant in a crossover design. Blood samples were taken from an in-dwelling jugular catheter prior to drug administration and at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, 48, and 72 h postadministration of the drug. Samples were centrifuged and plasma kept frozen at -70 degrees C until analysis for ceftiofur and active metabolites using an HPLC method. The pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur and metabolites after i.m. dosing and following ballistic implant were quite different. Absorption after i.m. injection was rapid; whereas following ballistic implant there was a lag-time until concentrations were detectable in plasma. The maximum concentration reached in plasma was higher following injection compared with ballistic implant, however the AUC calculated after ballistic implant was almost identical to the mean AUC found after i.m. dosing. The results indicate that i.m. administration of ceftiofur maintains adequate plasma levels for most susceptible bacterial pathogens for at least 12 h; therefore twice daily administration is needed in red deer. Ballistic implants produced plasma concentrations above the MIC for most bacterial pathogens from 4 to 24 h in most animals after administration; however, absorption of the drug was variable and some did not maintain effective concentrations for more than a few hours. Ceftiofur is a useful drug in red deer and twice daily i.m. administration dosing should allow treatment for susceptible bacterial pathogens.

Variable age structure and apparent density dependence in survival of adult ungulates.

Large herbivores have strongly age-structured populations. Because recruitment often decreases as population density increases, in unexploited populations the proportion of older adults may increase with density. Because survival senescence is typical of ungulates, ignoring density-dependent changes in age structure could lead to apparent density-dependence in adult survival. To test for density dependence in adult survival, we used data from three populations that underwent considerable changes in density. Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) on Ram Mountain, Alberta, ranged from 94 to 232, mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) on Caw Ridge, Alberta, varied from 81 to 147, and estimates of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) older than 1year at Chizé, France, ranged from 157 to 569. We used recent developments of capture-mark-recapture modelling to assess the response of adult survival to changes in density when age structure was and was not taken into account. Survival rates were 10-15% higher during the prime-age stage than during the senescent stage for all sex-species combinations. When adults were pooled into a single age class there was an apparent negative effect of density on female survival in bighorns and roe deer, and negative trends for female mountain goats, male roe deer and male bighorn sheep. When age class was taken into account, there were no significant effects of density on adult survival. Except for male mountain goats, the strength of density dependence was lower when age was taken into account. In ungulate populations, age structure is an important determinant of adult survival. Most reports of density dependence in adult survival may have been confounded by changes in age structure.

A Late Mesolithic Hunting Station at Agernæs, Fyn, Denmark

The Late Ertebølle hunting site from Agernæs, Fyn/Funen, Denmark, around 4200 cal yrs BC (51–5600 14C yr BP), has yielded a total of 32 animal species. They include eight species of fur animals comprising pine marten, polecat, wolf, fox, domestic dog, lynx, wild cat and otter. Neonatal red deer and roe deer were apparently only hunted for their skins. Animals hunted for consumption comprise aurochs, wild boar, adult red deer and roe deer. The season of activity is determined by the presence of newborn red deer, roe deer, piglets of wild boar and the time of skinning of the pine marten. The biometrical data from red deer, roe deer and wild boar indicate free migration between the island of Fyn and the mainland, Jylland/Jutland. The inhabitants of the site seem to have been highly focused on the hunting of fur animals. Pine marten has been a major target with 33 individuals. Specialized hunting strategies have further been applied. Bones from 10 species indicate that the main animal food source was terrestrial, while the isotope data from man and dog indicate a dominant marine diet. It is thus likely that Agernæs was a hunting station, and represents a specialized site, indicating that economic differentiation already was in progress. The termination of the Late Atlantic climatic optimum (8000–5000 14C BP), radical changes of the forested landscape during the elm decline, and diversification of economic activities may have created the foundation for the introduction of domestic animals only a few hundred years later than the habitation of the Agernæs site. The main habitation period of the site appears to fall between the Late Atlantic and the Subboreal Littorina transgression by comparison with data from the Littorina-transgressions of Sjælland/Zealand at Vedbæk, Storebælt, Trundholm Mose, Troldestuen, and Tengslemark.

Seasonal changes in melatonin concentrations in female Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus).

In deer, most of the earlier investigations on pineal function examined the effects of artificial photoperiods or the administration of melatonin to manipulate reproduction. However, endogenous melatonin rhythms have not been studied in red deer. Thus, we monitored seasonal changes in plasma melatonin concentrations in 16 adult female Iberian red deer living in outdoor enclosures. Blood was sampled on the day of each seasonal change every 3-4 hr overnight and 1 hr before and after sunset and sunrise. In addition, in six of the previous hinds, blood sampling during the hour prior and after sunset and sunrise was collected every 20 min. Significant differences were found both in amplitude and duration of the nocturnal plasma melatonin profiles in the four seasonal changes (P < 0.01). The nocturnal mean level of melatonin, the duration of nocturnal secretion levels and maximal concentrations were significantly higher at the winter solstice than in summer solstice or equinoxes (P < 0.05). Moreover, the mean overnight concentrations were significantly higher at the spring equinox and winter solstice than during the summer solstice and autumn equinox (P < 0.05). A pronounced elevation from low levels was recorded 1 hr after sunset, remained elevated during the hours of darkness and declined to low levels 1 hr after dawn. Concentrations close to sunrise were higher than those near sunset at all changes of season (P < 0.05). These results show for the first time in red deer that the pineal gland of the adult female is highly responsive to both daily and seasonal changes in natural environmental illumination, although overnight levels lasted longer than the photoperiodic night is all cases, particularly at the winter solstice.

The Feed Requirements of Adult Red Deer

This paper reviews the feeding requirements of adult red deer from nutritional, management and ecological perspectives. Particular emphasis is placed on the need to balance production objectives in the context of ecological sustainability. Topics such as feeding behaviour, feeding management, the relationship of body condition score to nutritional sufficiency, daily and seasonal feed intake requirements, and pasture species selection are also presented. The marketability of venison and the longterm acceptance of deer farming will be largely shaped by consumer perception of the animal welfare implications of production techniques, the ecological impact of production and an industry image that reflects social responsibility. Development of efficient feeding systems for farmed deer will impact on all of these areas.

A comparison of the calving behaviour of farmed adult and yearling red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds

Mortality of newborn red deer (Cervus elaphus) calves is a major concern on New Zealand farms, as perinatal losses average approximately 10% of calves born. Primiparous red deer (calving as yearlings) lose more calves than multiparous hinds (adults). We performed a study on yearling and adult red deer hinds in order to improve knowledge of their calving behaviour and determine any apparent reasons for calf mortality. Pacing along fence lines was observed frequently during the 24h period before birth (individuals were pacing in 43% of observations during this period). Adult hinds had a significantly earlier onset and longer duration of pacing (P<0.05). Hinds were often observed isolated (>20m) from the rest of the herd during the 2 days prior to parturition, and this behaviour was also observed earlier in the adults than in the yearlings (P<0.05). Forty-four percent of adult hinds and 60% of yearlings experienced some form of interference from other hinds during parturition. Among hinds that were interfered with, yearlings had a higher average number of interferences from other hinds during parturition than adults (P<0.05). Calves born to yearling hinds took significantly longer to suckle for the first time (mean=44min) from their dams than calves born to adult hinds (33min; P<0.05). We concluded that an inability of hinds to express natural isolation behaviour was likely to contribute to calf mortality due to increased anxiety (indicated by fence line pacing) and encroachment on the birth areas of others, and that calves of yearlings were at an increased risk of mortality due to the higher number of interferences taking place during parturition and the longer time interval between birth and suckling.

Large‐scale habitat variability, delayed density effects and red deer populations in Norway

Summary Parallel to the large‐scale changes in land‐use patterns over the last century in Europe, many deer species have expanded their range and increased in density, but the role of habitat changes for their population ecology remains poorly documented. We tested for effects of variability in agricultural (proportion of meadow and density of sheep) and forestry practices (proportion of coniferous and deciduous forest) in 106 municipalities in Norway on body weight of 10 206 female and 15 499 male adult red deer collected over the period 1965–2000. Long‐term temporal changes in body weights may also be due to delayed density effects, either due to that persistent high density of red deer through grazing and browsing may affect vegetation composition (i.e. an effect of cumulative density after present‐day density is controlled for), or that individuals born at high density start to penetrate the population (cohort‐effects). As these effects may be confounding to variability in forestry or agricultural practice, we also test whether cohort and/or cumulative density may affect body weight of red deer. There was a strong negative effect of cohort density, but no effect of cumulative density in the previous 10 years once the cohort effect was accounted for. There was a clear positive effect of proportion of meadow on red deer body weight, while there was no effect of sheep density once the effect of proportion of meadow was adjusted for. Proportion of meadow increased during the study, but most of the variation was between municipalities (i.e. in space). Neither proportional area of coniferous or deciduous forest consistently affected body weight of red deer in Norway. Our study emphasizes the multitude of factors over time and space that affects body weight, and hence demography and population dynamics, of large herbivores.

Onchocercosis in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Spain.

Onchocercosis, caused by Onchocerca flexuosa, was observed in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Spain for the first time. Adult specimens of P. flexuosa were found in nodules in subcutaneous tissues in 42 of 125 (33%) red deer between October 1994 and September 1995; intensity of infection +/- SD was 3.93 +/- 5.26 nodules per infected host. A clear seasonal pattern in the distribution of nodules was observed, with higher values of prevalence and intensity in fall and winter in contrast to spring and summer. Significant differences were found among age groups in prevalence, but not in the mean intensity. No differences in infection were apparent between male and female adult red deer.

A Zoletil-Rompun mixture as an alternative to the use of opioids for immobilization of feral red deer.

Sixty chemical immobilizations of red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus) have been carried out during an etho-ecological study from August 1994 to December 1996 in a 35 ha pen in the district of Nitra (Slovac Republic). Our objective was to determine the efficacy and standard dosages of Zoletil and Rompun for the immobilization of adult red deer in feral conditions as an alternative to the use of the highly toxic opioids. We therefore compared an Immobilon-Rompun combination (ImRo) with a 1:1 mixture of Zoletil and Rompun (ZoRo) as an injectable solution. Use of both combinations led to the immobilization of >92% of deer with an injection volume <3 ml. Mean (SD) dose to achieve immobilization was 35 (14) microg/kg ethorphine + 0.14 (0.056) mg/kg acepromazine + 0.36 (0.14) mg/kg xylazine compared to 1.2 (0.8) mg/kg tiletamine + 1.2 (0.8) mg/kg zolazepam + 2.3 (1.6) mg/kg xylazine. This corresponds to a volume of 1.8 (0.7) ml/100 kg body mass (BM) for ImRo (range = 1.0 to 4.6) and to 2.3 (1.6) ml/100 kg BM for ZoRo (range = 0.7 to 4.0), respectively. Heart rate, respiratory rate and oxyhaemoglobin saturation values did not differ significantly between the two groups during immobilization. Three deer (5%) died during immobilization, but fatalities could not be directly associated with the drug effect. Mean (SD) time from darting to complete immobilization was 5.5 (4.2) min for ImRo and 7.5 (6.1) min for ZoRo, respectively. Differences were not statistically significant. Anesthesia with both combinations of immobilizing agents could be reversed within 2 min using sarmazenile-yohimbine for ZoRo and diprenorphine-yohimbine for ImXy immobilizations, respectively. We conclude that the 1:1 combination of Zoletil and xylazine is a valuable alternative to the use of opioids for the immobilization of adult red deer including feral adult animals.

Genetic influences on reproduction of female red deer (Cervus elaphus)

This study compared the onset and duration of the breeding season of female red deer (Cervus elaphus scoticus) and its hybrids with either wapiti (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) or Père David's (PD) deer (Elaphurus davidianus). In Trial 1 (1995), adult red deer (n=9), F1 hybrid wapiti x red deer (n=6) and maternal backcross hybrid PD deer x red deer (i.e., 14 PD; n=9) were maintained together in the presence of a vasectomised red deer stag for 12 months. They were blood-sampled daily or three times weekly so that concentration profiles of plasma progesterone could be used to identify the initiation, duration and cessation of luteal events. There was clear evidence of luteal cyclicity between April and September, with the transition into breeding associated with an apparent silent ovulation and short-lived corpus luteum (i.e., 6-12 days) in every hind. A significant genotype effect occurred in the mean time to first oestrus (P<0.05), with wapiti hybrids and 14 PD hybrids being 9 and 5 days earlier than red deer. Between six and nine oestrous cycles were exhibited by each hind, with no difference in mean cycle length (19.5-19.6 days) between genotypes (P0.10). The overall length of the breeding season was significantly longer for wapiti hybrids (143 days) than for either red deer (130 days) and 14 PD hybrids (132 days, P<0.05). In Trial 2 (1998), adult red deer (n=5), 14 PD hybrids (n=5) and F(1) PD x red deer hybrid (n=5) hinds were maintained together from mid-February (late anoestrus) to early May, in the presence of a fertile red deer stag from 1 April. Thrice-weekly blood sampling yielded plasma progesterone profiles indicative of the onset of the breeding season. Again, there was a significant genotype effect on the mean time to first oestrus (P<0. 05), with F(1) PD hybrids and 14 PD hybrids being 13 and 5 days earlier than red deer. However, conception dates were influenced by the timing of stag joining, and were not significantly different between genotypes. The results indicate genetic effects on reproductive seasonality. However, seasonality observed for PD x red deer hybrids more closely approximated that of red deer than PD deer.

Genetic influences on reproduction of female red deer (Cervus elaphus) (2) seasonal and genetic effects on the superovulatory response to exogenous FSH.

This study evaluated the influences of seasons and genotype on the superovulatory response to a standardised oFSH regimen in red deer (Cervus elaphus scoticus) and its hybrids with either wapiti (C.e. nelsoni) or Père David's (PD) deer (Elaphurus davidianus). Adult red deer (n=9), F(1) hybrid wapiti x red deer (n=6), and maternal backcross hybrid PD x red deer (i.e., 14 PD hybrid; n=9) were kept together in the presence of a vasectomised stag for 13 months. At 6 weekly intervals, all hinds received a standardised treatment regimen used routinely to induce a superovulatory response in red deer hinds, with 10 consecutive treatments spanning an entire year. This involved synchronisation with intravaginal progesterone devices and delivery of multiple injections of oFSH (equivalent to 72 units NIH-FSH-S(1)). Laparoscopy to assess ovarian response was performed 6-7 days after the removal of the devices. Both season and genotype had significant effects on ovulation rate (OR) and total follicular stimulation (TFS) (P<0.05). For all the three genotypes, ovarian responses were highest from March to November (breeding season) and lowest in the period from December to January, inclusive. Mean OR for red deer hinds ranged from 3.7 to 1.8 during the breeding season, with no observable trend. All red deer hinds were anovulatory during December and January. A similar pattern occurred for 14 PD hybrids, although mean OR during the breeding seasons were twofold lower than for the red deer. For F(1) wapiti hybrids, the first two treatments in March and April resulted in the highest mean OR observed (15.6 and 11.7, respectively). Thereafter, mean values ranged between 6.3 and 4.7 for the remainder of the breeding season. Furthermore, mean OR of 3.0 and 0.5 were recorded in December and January, respectively. For the red deer and F(1) wapiti hybrids, between-hind variation in OR was not randomly distributed across the treatment dates, indicating that the individuals varied significantly in their ability to respond to oFSH, at least within a given season.In conclusion, the study has shown that relative to red deer, F(1) wapiti hybrid hinds exhibit a higher sensitivity to oFSH, whereas 14 PD hybrid hinds have a lower sensitivity. However, individual variation within genotype was very marked. A seasonal effect was apparent for all genotypes, although some F(1) wapiti hybrid hinds exhibited ovulatory responses throughout the year.