Adult Descendants Research Articles

Breaking the Silence About Compulsory Social Measures in Switzerland: Consequences for Survivor Families

So‐called compulsory social measures (CSM) represent a dark chapter in Swiss history. Hundreds of thousands of children and adolescents from families affected by poverty were placed in foster families and homes, or used as labourers on farms. These decisions could hardly be appealed. Many minors suffered traumatic violence in out‐of‐home placements. In 1981 the relevant laws were redrafted and the practice of CSM was officially stopped. Nevertheless, CSM were considered taboo for decades in Swiss politics and society. Often survivors even concealed their experiences from their own partners and children. It was not until 2013 that a major political and social reappraisal began. Against this background, we analyse how the state breaking its silence on the issue, through the initiating of public reappraisal, changed the way families deal with their parents’ history regarding CSM. To this end, six biographical interviews with adult descendants of survivors were analysed using grounded theory methodology. The results show that the public reappraisal triggered processes of revealing secrets from parental history in families, which also enabled emotional rapprochement between family members. However, it also opened up new areas of family tension and found expression in new constellations of silence. Overall Switzerland’s state action had ambivalent consequences for survivor families.

In the shadow of dissidence: exploring the experiences of descendants of Czechoslovakian dissidents.

The Communist Party's reign in Czechoslovakia (1948-1989) saw the persecution of thousands of individuals. The State Security campaign "Asanace" (meaning "sanitation") was conducted to expel critics of the regime from the country using psychological and physical terror. Although stories of dissidents are frequently presented in public spaces, little is known about the experiences of their children. To address this gap, we conducted interpretative phenomenological analyses of semi-structured in-depth interviews with five adult descendants of Czechoslovakian dissidents. Our analyses revealed that while participants appreciated and were inspired by their parents' dissident activities, they tend to distance themselves from it in order not to live in their parents' shadow. Furthermore, for them, the "Asanace" campaign primarily meant emigration, which in turn affected their sense of self and (national) identity dispersion. Consequently, they experienced feelings of being uprooted and different. Furthermore, they faced challenges acculturating. However, they also recognized their resilience as being rooted in their migration experience and the legacy of their parents' dissidence. By highlighting intergenerational differences and the impact of family legacy on individuals' strengths and weaknesses, this study contributes to our understanding of the psychological consequences of living in, escaping from and adjusting to life beyond oppressive regimes.

Mortality Advantage Reversed: The Causes of Death Driving All-Cause Mortality Differentials Between Immigrants, the Descendants of Immigrants and Ancestral Natives in Sweden, 1997–2016

A small but growing body of studies have documented the alarming mortality situation of adult descendants of migrants in a number of European countries. Nearly all of them have focused on all-cause mortality to reveal these important health inequalities. This paper takes advantage of the Swedish population registers to study all-cause and cause-specific mortality among men and women aged 15–44 in Sweden from 1997 to 2016 to a level of granularity unparalleled elsewhere. It adopts a multi-generation, multi-origin and multi-cause-of-death approach. Using extended, competing-risks survival models, it aims to show (1) how the all-cause mortality of immigrants arriving as adults (the G1), immigrants arriving as children (the G1.5) and children of immigrants born in Sweden to at least one immigrant parent (the G2) differs versus ancestral Swedes and (2) what causes-of-deaths drive these differentials. For all-cause mortality, most G1 (not Finns or Sub-Saharan Africans) have a mortality advantage. This contrasts with a near systematic reversal in the mortality of the G1.5 and G2 (notably among men), which is driven by excess accident and injury, suicide, substance use and other external cause mortality. Given that external causes-of-death are preventable and avoidable, the findings raise questions about integration processes, the levels of inequality immigrant populations are exposed to in Sweden and ultimately, whether the legacy of immigration has been positive. Strengths of the study include the use of quality data and advanced methods, the granularity of the estimates, and the provision of evidence that highlights the precarious mortality situation of the seldom-studied G1.5.

A Four-Generational Report on Hereditary Head and Neck Paraganglioma.

BackgroundThis article investigates the inheritance, penetrance, clinical presentation, and therapeutic outcomes of hereditary head and neck paragangliomas (HNPGLs) by offering a four-generational report of an 18-member family affected by this rare condition.MethodologyInformation was compiled by examination of patients and a review of medical records and correspondence (retrospective case series).ResultsSix members of the 18-member family were diagnosed with HNPGL between 2002 and 2018. A known pathogenic point mutation in subunit D of the succinyl dehydrogenase complex (SDHD, c.317G>T, p.Gly106Val) was responsible for the tumor phenotype. The mutation could be revealed in seven family members, three diseased adults, one healthy adult, and three healthy children, out of the nine who consented to gene testing. The median age at diagnosis was 33.5 years (range: 22-50 years). Five of the eight primary tumors were glomus caroticum, two were glomus jugulare, and one was a glomus vagale tumor. The therapeutic approaches were multimodal and included embolization therapy, surgery, radiation, and watchful waiting. Follow-up was reported for five of the six patients (mean follow-up of 34.8 months after primary therapy); three showed no disease progression or recurrence.ConclusionsThis study exemplifies the autosomal dominant, parent-of-origin-dependent inheritance and the high disease penetrance in hereditary paraganglioma-pheochromocytoma syndromes. Six out of a total of eight adult descendants (75%) of the original SDHD mutation carrier developed tumors, and the morbidity associated with the disease as well as its therapy was especially high in late-diagnosed, advanced cases. This substantiates the necessity for early radiologic surveillance and genetic testing.

Visualizing Intergenerational Immigrant Assimilation at Work

The extent to which successive immigrant generations experience economic progress is a fundamental yardstick of assimilation and future ethnic stratification in the increasingly diverse societies of the rich West. In this regard, measuring how immigrants and local-born adult descendants of immigrants are distributed across different labor market segments provides clues about their relative assimilation into the mainstream economy. Drawing on linked employer-employee administrative data from Norway, the author uses heat plots to visualize differences in ethnic and socioeconomic characteristics of workplace contexts by immigrant background. The visualization reveals a striking overall pattern of intergenerational assimilation, whereby immigrant descendants are employed in workplaces that are more like those of nonmigrant natives in terms of immigrant concentration and, in particular, coworkers’ salaries, education, and occupational task profiles compared with the immigrant generation. However, less-successful members of the second generation found in workplaces with less prestigious job characteristics still experience disproportionate levels of ethnic workplace segregation.

Pregnancy Is Enough to Provoke Deleterious Effects in Descendants of Fructose-Fed Mothers and Their Fetuses.

The role of fructose in the global obesity and metabolic syndrome epidemic is widely recognized. However, its consumption is allowed during pregnancy. We have previously demonstrated that maternal fructose intake in rats induces detrimental effects in fetuses. However, these effects only appeared in adult descendants after a re-exposure to fructose. Pregnancy is a physiological state that leads to profound changes in metabolism and hormone response. Therefore, we wanted to establish if pregnancy in the progeny of fructose-fed mothers was also able to provoke an unhealthy situation. Pregnant rats from fructose-fed mothers (10% w/v) subjected (FF) or not (FC) to a fructose supplementation were studied and compared to pregnant control rats (CC). An OGTT was performed on the 20th day of gestation, and they were sacrificed on the 21st day. Plasma and tissues from mothers and fetuses were analyzed. Although FF mothers showed higher AUC insulin values after OGTT in comparison to FC and CC rats, ISI was lower and leptinemia was higher in FC and FF rats than in the CC group. Accordingly, lipid accretion was observed both in liver and placenta in the FC and FF groups. Interestingly, fetuses from FC and FF mothers also showed the same profile observed in their mothers on lipid accumulation, leptinemia, and ISI. Moreover, hepatic lipid peroxidation was even more augmented in fetuses from FC dams than those of FF mothers. Maternal fructose intake produces in female progeny changes that alter their own pregnancy, leading to deleterious effects in their fetuses.

Liquid carbohydrate intake modifies transsulfuration pathway both in pregnant rats and in their male descendants

IntroductionFructose, alone or in combination with glucose, has been used as a source of added sugars to manufacture sugary drinks and processed foods. High consumption of simple sugars, mainly fructose, has been demonstrated to be one of the causes of developing metabolic diseases. Maternal nutrition is a key factor in the health of the progeny when adult. However, ingestion of fructose-containing foods is still permitted during gestation. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a gasotransmitter produced in the transsulfuration pathway with proved beneficial effects to combat metabolic diseases. MethodsCarbohydrates were supplied to pregnant rats in drinking water (10% wt/vol) throughout gestation, and the pregnant rats, their foetuses, and adult male descendants were studied. Later, adult male progeny from control, fructose- and glucose-fed mothers were subjected to liquid fructose, and were compared to the control group. Liver H2S production was determined. ResultsThis study shows that, in pregnancy, either a fructose-rich diet per se or situations that produce an impaired insulin sensitivity such as an excessive intake of glucose, decrease hepatic and placental production of H2S. Furthermore, this effect was also observed in the liver of male offspring (both in foetal and adult stages). Interestingly, when these adult descendants were subjected to a high fructose intake, decreases in H2S synthesis in liver and adipose tissue due to this fructose intake were maternal consumption dependent. ConclusionsGiven H2S is a protective agent against diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic syndrome, the fact that carbohydrate consumption reduces H2S synthesis both in pregnancy and in their progeny could have clear and relevant clinical implications.

Liquid carbohydrate intake modifies transsulfuration pathway both in pregnant rats and in their male descendants

IntroductionFructose, alone or in combination with glucose, has been used as a source of added sugars to manufacture sugary drinks and processed foods. High consumption of simple sugars, mainly fructose, has been demonstrated to be one of the causes of developing metabolic diseases. Maternal nutrition is a key factor in the health of the progeny when adult. However, ingestion of fructose-containing foods is still permitted during gestation. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a gasotransmitter produced in the transsulfuration pathway with proved beneficial effects to combat metabolic diseases. MethodsCarbohydrates were supplied to pregnant rats in drinking water (10% wt/vol) throughout gestation, and the pregnant rats, their foetuses, and adult male descendants were studied. Later, adult male progeny from control, fructose- and glucose-fed mothers were subjected to liquid fructose, and were compared to the control group. Liver H2S production was determined. ResultsThis study shows that, in pregnancy, either a fructose-rich diet per se or situations that produce an impaired insulin sensitivity such as an excessive intake of glucose, decrease hepatic and placental production of H2S. Furthermore, this effect was also observed in the liver of male offspring (both in foetal and adult stages). Interestingly, when these adult descendants were subjected to a high fructose intake, decreases in H2S synthesis in liver and adipose tissue due to this fructose intake were maternal consumption dependent. ConclusionsGiven H2S is a protective agent against diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic syndrome, the fact that carbohydrate consumption reduces H2S synthesis both in pregnancy and in their progeny could have clear and relevant clinical implications.

Silesians in Texas and Upper Silesia: anthropometric, functional and physical activity characteristics

Anthropometric, functional and physical activity characteristics of contemporary adult descendants of Upper Silesian immigrants to Texas in the mid-19th century and current residents in Upper Silesia were compared. The sample included 45 residents in Central Texas, 25 women and 20 men, and 36 residents in rural Upper Silesia, 24 women and 12 men, 54-76 years of age. Variables included selected demographic characteristics, anthropometry, estimated body composition, several physiological indicators, strength and functional fitness, and physical activity. Sex-specific MANCOVA and Chi square were used for comparisons. Descendants of Silesian immigrants to Texas were taller, on average, while differences in other anthropometric variables were variable. All residents in Silesia and the majority of descendants of Silesian migrants to Texas were overweight or obese. Differences in hemodynamic and respiratory functions and responses to a 6-minute walk were inconsistent, while none of the fitness variables differed significantly between the samples. Although residents in Upper Silesia were significantly more physically active descendants of Silesians in Texas, >80% of the men and women in both samples scored below the criterion-reference standard for the maintenance of physical independence in the 6-minute walk.

Peculiarities of Morphology of Large Salivary Glands in Experimental Animals Under Different Conditions of Motor Activity of Their Mothers During Pregnancy

Objective: To evaluate of the microstructure of the salivary glands of experimental animals born from of females rats, who were subjected to different modes of motor activity during the pregnancy: limited and compensated by regular moderate training. Material and Methods: The sample was composed 84 three-month-old descendants of Wistar rats which were divided into three groups: G1 (n = 27): posterity of female rats, who during gestation were in standard conditions; G2 (n = 25): posterity of female rats, who during pregnancy were in hypokinesia conditions; G3 (n = 32): which stayed in conditions of hypokinesia, but had running load in running wheel regularly 5 times a week. Results: In adult descendants of G2, morphological structure of the submandibular salivary glands was characterized by decrease size and number of glandular cells; reduction of their cytoplasm; increase in heterochromatin amount and decrease in the intensity of fuchsinophilia. Microstructure of the submandibular salivary glands of the offspring of G3 indicates positive effect of regular short-term physical activity on the morphofunctional state of the specified glands. An increased number of tissue basophils in their stroma is also in favor of greater functional activity of salivary glands. Conclusion: This study indicates deceleration of the metabolic processes in salivary glands of animals under the influence of hypokinesia of their mothers during pregnancy. It was also confirmed that regular physical activity completely eliminates the negative effect of mothers' hypokinesia on morphology the salivary glands of the descendant.

Factors Explaining the Interest of Adult Offspring in Succeeding Their Parents as Forest Owners

In the past, Swedish ownership of the forest estate was predominantly passed on by parents to their descendants. However, a general societal change has given successors a larger say in decisions on such matters. Their willingness to become forest owners has, therefore, become an important factor for who will own the forest in the future. To study what factors explain adult descendants’ interest in taking over as forest owners, this study determined how adult children, who expressed a willingness to take over their parents’ forest estate, were different from those who were not willing. Members of the Northern Forest Owner Association in Sweden were asked to provide contact addresses of their children, in the age group 30 to 50 years old. The logistic regression analysis of the 249 participating offspring respondents revealed several significant factors. Offspring who helped their parents with the management of the estate were more likely to be willing to take it over, showing that developing into a forest owner remains a socialization process that starts with practical work. Values, such as the respondents’ attitude towards maintaining a forest ownership tradition, as well as the interest in forest income, hunting, and fishing, were also found to be factors affecting the willingness to take over. The results also indicate that the socialization process is still gender-biased, and that the distance between a descendants’ present home and the forest estate is a factor that mattered.

Remodeling of the abdominal epithelial monolayer during the larva-pupa-adult transformation of Manduca

During metamorphosis of insect epithelial monolayers, cells die, divide, and rearrange. In Drosophila undifferentiated diploid cells destined to form the adult cuticle of each abdominal segment segregate early in development from the surrounding polyploid larval epithelial cells of that segment as eight groups of diploid histoblast cells. The larval polyploid cells are programmed to die and be replaced by divisions and rearrangements of histoblast cells. By contrast, abdominal epithelial cells of Manduca larvae form a monolayer of cells representing different ploidy levels with no definitive segregation of diploid cells destined to form adult structures. These epithelial cells of mixed ploidy levels produce a thick smooth larval cuticle with sparsely distributed sensory bristles. Adult descendants of this larval monolayer produce a thinner cuticle with densely packed scale cells. The transition between these differentiated states of Manduca involves divisions of cells, changes in ploidy levels, and sorting of certain polyploid cells into circular rosette patches to minimize contacts of these polyploid cells with surrounding cells of equal or smaller size. Cells within the rosettes and some surrounding cells are destined to die and be replaced by remaining epithelial cells of uniform size and ploidy at pupa-adult apolysis.

The role of parents’ mobility behavior for dynamics in car availability and commute mode use

Recent studies have analyzed travel behavior over the life course through the lens of the mobility biography approach. Similarities in the effects of certain key events on travel behavior have been found. At the same time, family background influences changes in travel behavior in the long run. However, to date, the role of parents’ mobility behavior on their adult children’s mobility behavior has not yet been analyzed. In addition, there has been no empirical analysis of mobility biographies that simultaneously considers aging, key events, changes in residential location, changes in commute distance and parental socialization. This paper uses intergenerational mobility biographies and investigates the role of these variables in explaining changes in car availability and commuting mode use. To this end, a unique retrospective dataset is used of more than 1600 mobility biographies of persons born around 1957 as well as the mobility biographies of their parents. Markov models are used to analyze mobility behavior over the life course. The results show that parents’ behavior is not directly associated with the behavior of their adult descendants. However, age, attitude towards the car, gender and changes in the built environment are important predictors for dynamics in car availability. Commute mode changes are dominantly associated with changes in commute distance but also with changes in car availability and attitude. Key events such as divorce or childbirth are less important. The results suggest that there are indirect parental socialization effects via residential location and attitude on car availability and commute mode use. This paper points out the importance of the life course, changes in commute distance and changes in the built environment for car availability and commute mode use and is an example of the application of Markov models for the analysis of quantitative mobility biographies.

Family as a catalyst in farms' diversifying agricultural products: A mixed methods analysis of diversified and non-diversified farms in Indiana, Michigan and Ohio

Farms diversifying their agricultural products are going against a prevailing trend of product specialization. Understanding these farms’ motivations has value because diversified farming systems may confer economic, social, and environmental benefits to farms and their ecosystems. Research has looked retrospectively at the reasons diversified farms recall for expanding their range of agricultural outputs. This study contributes to that literature by looking prospectively at how a set of diversified and non-diversified farms in Indiana, Michigan and Ohio considers further diversifying agricultural products. A phase 2 survey (n=179) examines a narrative elicited in phase 1 interviews (n=18): that farms diversify so that more adults in the family can work on the farm. Survey findings support this narrative. Among all respondents, two factors are positively associated with outlook on diversifying: (1) prioritizing the farm as something that adult descendants can do for a profession, and (2) having children under 18. However among a subgroup of non-diversified farms (n=71), while having children at home is positively associated with interest in diversifying, wanting the farm to employ descendants is not. This divergent pattern among non-diversified farms may support a secondary interview narrative, which is that farms only diversify during the years children are teens, to supplement their college savings, with no expectation of maintaining diversified enterprises into children’s adulthood. These findings merit follow-on research to clarify how farms that trial diversified outputs while children are teens may evolve to longer-term diversified agricultural systems.

The Lives and Diseases of Females during the Latter Half of the Joseon Dynasty as Reconstructed with Cases in Yeoksi Manpil (Stray Notes with Experienced Tests)

Through the cases of approximately 80 females in the case records of traditional physician Yi Sugwi (1664-1740?), the present study divided and reclassified the lives and diseases of females during the latter half of the Joseon Dynasty into childhood, obstetrics- and gynecology-related problems in adulthood, other diseases in adulthood, and old age and analyzed them. According to the results, female children were treated less preciously than were male children so that treatments by traditional physicians were sought out less when they were ill than in the case of male children, and acute infectious diseases were the most serious health problems. In the process of receiving treatment from traditional physicians as adults, females came in contact with traditional physicians, who were male, when necessary including face-to-face sessions and the reception of pulse examination but the yangban (literati-official) class practiced sex segregation as much as possible while the lower classes were considerably free from such restrictions. For female adults, the most serious health issues were pregnancy and childbirth so that they received help from traditional physicians and midwives when there were problems. Traditional physicians determined females' pregnancy and the health of fetuses and pregnant women through pulse examinations and medication and actively responded to diverse problems that surfaced in the process with medication and other treatments. Acute infectious diseases, too, were serious diseases suffered by females, and problems involving cold damage and the digestive system were among diseases frequently suffered by females in adulthood and old age. In old age, females often became ill in the arduous process of dealing with the deaths of adult descendants, siblings, and spouses, and tumors were among the major causes of their deaths. The deaths of those aged 70 or above were accepted as quite natural. Aged females endeavored to maintain their health and played the role of elders giving care to their descendants.

Family caregivers of the elderly: quality of life and coping in Estonia

The purpose of the study was to analyse the assessments of elderly people aged 65 and more about family caregiving as a factor influencing their quality of life and coping. The study is based on the project SUFACARE—‘Supporting family carers and care receivers in Estonia and in Finland’—in the framework of which the Institute of Social Work of Tallinn University carried out postal surveys in 2010. The Estonian survey was conducted in Tallinn and Lääne-Viru County. The total number of respondents was 581 (70% female and 30% male), of whom 98 (n=74 female and n=24 male) were family caregivers. Caregiving has not influenced the physical and mental health of caregivers, the reason being that many people who receive care are not of very ill health or suffer from dementia. People mostly take care of their spouses. Based on the Estonian Family Law Act (RT I 2009, 60, 395), adult descendants are required to provide maintenance if their relatives are not able to care for themselves. Caregivers whose health is below average consider caring to be physically demanding. We cannot speak of the social isolation of respondents who have care duties—they communicate actively and do not feel lonely. Women report caregiving to be physically strenuous more often than men. The mental health of male caregivers is better—fewer male respondents claimed to feel unhappy or depressed compared to female respondents.

Transnational Involvement: Reading Quantitative Studies in Light of Qualitative Data

Studies of migrant transnationalism are dominated by qualitative case studies. To take the field further, there is a need for more quantitative studies and for connecting quantitative and qualitative studies through a reiterative feedback loop. In order to contribute to this, we take two refined and original quantitative studies, one by Snel et al. and one by Portes et al., as a vantage point, commenting on the authors’ organization of analytical categories and their operationalization of key concepts, in light of our own, qualitative data. These data come from a research project, EUMARGINS, where we analyze processes of inclusion and exclusion of young adult immigrants and descendants in seven European countries, using participant observation and life-story interviews in combination with statistical data. We conclude that the process whereby young migrants identify themselves in terms of ethnicity and belonging is context-specific, multidimensional, and hard to study quantitatively.

Biology of Tupiocoris cucurbitaceus (Hemiptera: Miridae), a predator of the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in tomato crops in Argentina

The predator Tupiocoris cucurbitaceus is frequently found attacking Trialeurodes vaporariorum in greenhouses without pesticide applications in Argentina. The objective of these studies was to evaluate some biological characteristics of this species fed on three types of diet (whitefly nymphs, Sitotroga cerealella eggs and a mix of both) and on two host plants (tomato and tobacco), under controlled experimental conditions. Preimaginal developmental time for female and male bugs was shorter in the presence of whiteflies than with only moth eggs. Females lived longer when they ate only whitefly nymphs compared to a mixed diet or only moth eggs. The amount of adult descendants was greater when bugs could eat whiteflies, regardless of the presence of S. cerealella. Embryonic development time, male longevity and sex proportion were not affected by the diet or the host plant. Prey consumption was evaluated for three T. cucurbitaceus life history stages (fourth/fifth instar nymphs, female and male adults) on two types of prey (whitefly nymphs and S. cerealella eggs). On tomato, females were more voracious than males and nymphs. On tobacco, adults and nymphs consumed more S. cerealella than T.vaporariorum nymphs, but again, bug females preyed more than males and nymphs. Results demonstrate that T. cucurbitaceus can survive, develop and reproduce normally using both T. vaporariorum and S. cerealella eggs as prey on tobacco or tomato plants. This information can be useful for managing this predator against T. vaporariorum through conservative or augmentative biological control strategies.

Homozygosity Mapping and Exome Sequencing Reveal GATAD1 Mutation in Autosomal Recessive Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a heritable, genetically heterogeneous disorder that typically exhibits autosomal dominant inheritance. Genomic strategies enable discovery of novel, unsuspected molecular underpinnings of familial DCM. We performed genome-wide mapping and exome sequencing in a unique family wherein DCM segregated as an autosomal recessive (AR) trait. Echocardiography in 17 adult descendants of first cousins revealed DCM in 2 female siblings and idiopathic left ventricular enlargement in their brother. Genotyping and linkage analysis mapped an AR DCM locus to chromosome arm 7q21, which was validated and refined by high-density homozygosity mapping. Exome sequencing of the affected sisters was then used as a complementary strategy for mutation discovery. An iterative bioinformatics process was used to filter >40,000 genetic variants, revealing a single shared homozygous missense mutation localized to the 7q21 critical region. The mutation, absent in HapMap, 1000 Genomes, and 474 ethnically matched controls, altered a conserved residue of GATAD1, encoding GATA zinc finger domain-containing protein 1. Thirteen relatives were heterozygous mutation carriers with no evidence of myocardial disease, even at advanced ages. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated nuclear localization of GATAD1 in left ventricular myocytes, yet subcellular expression and nuclear morphology were aberrant in the proband. Linkage analysis and exome sequencing were used as synergistic genomic strategies to identify GATAD1 as a gene for AR DCM. GATAD1 binds to a histone modification site that regulates gene expression. Consistent with murine DCM caused by genetic disruption of histone deacetylases, the data implicate an inherited basis for epigenetic dysregulation in human heart failure.

Basic molecular fingerprinting of immature cerebellar cortical inhibitory interneurons and their precursors

While the development of cerebellar granule and Purkinje neurons has been extensively studied, little is known about the developmental mechanisms that lead to the generation and diversification of inhibitory GABAergic interneurons of the cerebellar cortex. To address this issue, we compared gene expression in complete, early postnatal murine cerebella to that in cerebella from which immature inhibitory interneurons and their precursors had been stripped based on their expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) from the Pax2 locus. We identified some 300 candidate genes selectively enriched within immature cerebellar cortical inhibitory interneurons and/or their precursors, many of which were also expressed in their adult descendants and/or the embryonic cerebellar ventricular epithelium that gives rise to these cells. None of the genes identified, among them Tcfap2α, Tcfap2β, Lbxcor1 and Lbx1, was cell-type specific. Rather, gene expression, and also splicing, changed dynamically during development and rather reflects stage of differentiation than lineage. Consistently, cluster analysis of transcriptional regulators and genes specific for adult cerebellar GABAergic cells does not suggest a hierarchical lineage relationship or an early commitment of subtypes of cerebellar cortical inhibitory interneurons. Together, these data support the notion that diversification of cerebellar inhibitory interneurons is highly regulative and subject to local signaling to postmigratory precursors.