Cognitive Ability In Adulthood Research Articles

Mediators of the Effect of Childhood Socioeconomic Status on Late Midlife Cognitive Abilities: A Four Decade Longitudinal Study.

Background and ObjectivesChildhood socioeconomic status (cSES) is found to predict later-life cognitive abilities, yet the mechanisms underlying these associations remain unclear. The objective of this longitudinal study was to examine the direct and indirect paths through which cSES influences late midlife cognitive outcomes.Research Design and MethodsParticipants were 1,009 male twins in the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging (VETSA). At mean ages 20 and 62, participants completed a standardized test for general cognitive ability (GCA). The age 62 cognitive assessment also included in-person tests of processing speed, episodic memory, abstract reasoning, working memory, verbal fluency, visual-spatial ability, and executive functions. At mean age 56, participants were interviewed regarding their own and their parents’ education and occupation, and completed questionnaires about cognitive leisure activities and sociodemographic information. Multiple mediation analyses were conducted to examine the direct path effects and indirect path effects of cSES through age 20 GCA, adult SES, and cognitive leisure activities on seven cognitive outcomes at age 62, adjusting for age, ethnicity, and non-independence of observations.ResultsTotal (direct plus indirect) effects were significant for all measures with the exception of executive functions. Men from lower cSES backgrounds had poorer cognitive functioning in late midlife. The direct effect of cSES was partially mediated for abstract reasoning, and was fully mediated for the remaining six cognitive outcomes. Total indirect effects accounted for at least half of the total effects in each model, with paths through age 20 GCA explaining most of the total indirect effects.Discussion and ImplicationscSES predicted cognitive functioning in late middle age Using multiple mediation models, we show that lower cSES predicts poorer cognition in late midlife primarily through young adult cognitive ability and to a lesser extent through SES in adulthood and engagement in cognitively stimulating activities.

What Did You Do Today? Variability in Daily Activities is Related to Variability in Daily Cognitive Performance.

Are the activities we do each day related to fluctuations in our daily cognitive performance? Positive longitudinal associations between cognitive, physical, and social activities and cognitive ability in adulthood are well established. However little is known about how this relationship may operate at the daily level. Community-dwelling participants 60-90 years of age (M = 69.41; n = 146) reported their activity participation and completed cognitive tests online for 7 consecutive days. Multilevel models showed that daily activities covaried with daily cognitive performance, indicating fluctuations in the activities that a person engaged in across the week were associated with corresponding changes in their daily speed, memory, and reasoning. This was strongest for social activities where on days when individuals engaged in more routine activities with social-private characteristics than usual, they had higher memory scores and responded faster. This information could be particularly relevant to the daily lives of older adults, especially those experiencing cognitive decline.

Effect of complex aerobic physical exercise on PSD-95 in the hippocampus and on cognitive function in juvenile mice

Increased neuroplasticity induced by complex aerobic physical exercise is associated with improved cognitive function in adult mice. Increased cognitive function is assumed to be based on increased synapse formation. One of the regions of the brain that is important in cognitive function is the hippocampus, which plays a role in memory formation. Post synaptic density-95 (PSD-95) is an adhesion protein of the post-synaptic density scaffolding that is essential to synaptic stabilization. As we age, the PSD-95 molecule matures the synapses needed for the formation of the basic circuitry of the nervous system in the brain. However, during the growth period, synapse elimination is higher than its formation. This study aims to determine whether complex aerobic exercise can improve cognitive function and PSD-95 levels in the hippocampus of juvenile mice during their growth stage. The mice performed complex aerobic exercise starting at five weeks of age and continuing for seven weeks with a gradual increase of 8 m/min. At eight weeks it was increased to 10 m/min. The exercise was done for five days of each week. The subjects of the study were tested for cognition one week before being sacrificed (at 12 weeks). The PSD-95 in the hippocampus was measured with ELISA. The results showed that there was a significant difference in cognitive function, where p < 0.05, between the group that was given complex aerobic exercise and a control group that did not. However, the PSD-95 levels did not differ significantly between the two groups. The results of this study indicate that early complex aerobic exercise can improve cognitive ability in adulthood but does not increase the levels of PSD-95 in adults.

Childhood Cognitive Ability and Age-Related Changes in Physical Capability From Midlife: Findings From a British Birth Cohort Study.

The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that higher childhood cognitive ability is associated with reduced risk of decline in physical capability in late midlife. Participants were 1954 men and women from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development with complete data on cognitive ability at age of 15 years and measures of grip strength and chair rise speed at ages of 53 and 60 to 64 years. Using multinomial logistic regression, associations of childhood cognitive ability with categories of change in grip strength and chair rise speed (i.e., decline, stable high, stable low, reference) were investigated. Adjustments were made for potential confounders from early life and adult mediators including health behaviors, educational level, and cognitive ability at age of 53 years. Higher childhood cognitive scores were associated with reduced risks of decline in grip strength and chair rise speed, for example, the sex-adjusted relative-risk ratio of decline (versus reference) in grip strength per 1SD increase in childhood cognitive score was 0.82 (95% confidence interval = 0.73-0.92). Higher childhood cognitive scores were also associated with reduced risk of stable low and increased likelihood of stable high chair rise speed. These findings suggest that childhood cognitive ability may be related to decline in physical capability in late midlife. A number of life course pathways are implicated, including those linking childhood and adult cognitive ability. Future research aiming to identify new opportunities to prevent or minimize age-related declines in physical capability may benefit from considering the potential role of neurodevelopmental as well as neurodegenerative pathways.

Childhood intelligence and personality traits neuroticism and openness contributes to social mobility: A study in the Aberdeen 1936 Birth Cohort

BackgroundSocial mobility has been linked to intelligence, education, personality traits and childhood socioeconomic status (SES). We explore these influences to evaluate their relative importance as sources of individual differences in social mobility. MethodsData are from the Aberdeen Birth Cohort of 1936 (ABC36) for whom childhood intelligence scores are available. Social mobility of participants was estimated from comparisons between their childhood and adult circumstances age 64. Personality traits were assessed using the Five Factor model. Structural Equation Modelling was used to investigate the influence on social mobility of socioeconomic variables, childhood and adult intelligence, education and personality traits. ResultsControlling for childhood socioeconomic status and childhood intelligence, upward social mobility is predicted by personality traits of Openness (positive) and Neuroticism (negative). Neuroticism had a significant direct influence on mobility after. Openness had an indirect effect via Education and adult cognitive ability. Education, childhood and adult cognitive ability are significant influences on mobility. ConclusionsSocioeconomic destination is determined in this sample by childhood intelligence and socioeconomic status and the adult personality traits of Openness and Neuroticism. Educational exposure and gains in cognitive ability over the life course mediate these influences.

Birth weight and cognitive ability in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Birth weight is associated with a range of adult health outcomes. In childhood, there is a positive association between birth weight – in the normal range (>2500g) – and cognitive ability, but no systematic review has yet assessed this effect across adult life. We aimed to synthesise published studies assessing the relationship between birth weight and general cognitive ability in non-clinical adult populations (≥18years). Nineteen studies (N=1.122,858), mean participant age ranged from 18 to 78.4years, fulfilled the inclusion criteria, of which eight could be included in a random-effects meta-analysis. Birth weight was associated with cognitive ability in adulthood, with each kilogram increase in birth weight associated with a 0.13 SD increase in general or fluid intelligence (95% CI [0.07, 0.19]). There was considerable heterogeneity in the effect size (I2=97.8%, 95% CI [97.2, 98.4], p<0.001). The association was similar after correcting for gestational age and parental social class where data were available. The effect size was larger for participants aged <60years than those aged 60years or over. There is a modest association between birth weight and cognitive ability in adulthood that may diminish at older ages.

Neonatal predictors of cognitive ability in adults born very preterm: a prospective cohort study.

To identify neonatal predictors to allow a developmental prognosis of the cognitive abilities of survivors born very preterm/very low birthweight (VLBW) into adult life. The Bavarian Longitudinal Study is a prospective whole-population study that followed 260 infants born very preterm/VLBW from birth to adulthood. Regression analyses examined which neonatal factors predicted adult IQ. Neonatal morbidity, neonatal treatment, and early social environment of infants born very preterm/VLBW explained 37.6% of the variance in adult IQ. Seven unique early-life predictors of lower adulthood IQ were found: respiratory distress syndrome, intraventricular haemorrhage, problems with mobility, mechanical ventilation, less parenteral nutrition, low/middle socioeconomic status, and poor early parent-infant relationships. Specifically, modifiable factors such as mechanical ventilation predicted a drop of 0.43 IQ points for each day of treatment, adjusted for initial respiratory problems. Good early parent-infant relationships predicted an approximately 5-point increase in adult IQ, adjusted for other significant predictors such as socioeconomic status. Mechanical ventilation, parenteral feeding, and early parenting were identified as significant modifiable factors that were strongly related to adult IQ. Mechanical ventilation policies have changed but there is scope for early interventions that focus on positive parenting, which may reduce the adverse effects of very preterm/VLBW birth on cognitive abilities.

The relationship between sound-shape matching and cognitive ability in adults with Down syndrome.

Down syndrome (DS), the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability, is characterised by a pattern of cognitive deficits hypothesised as relating to later developing neural systems. Multisensory integration (MSI) has been shown to benefit cognitive performance on numerous tasks in the typically developing population and is implicated in the early development of various cognitive processes. Given these developmental links of both MSI and DS it is important to determine the relationship between MSI and DS. This study aimed to characterise sound-shape matching performance in young adults with DS as an indicator of MSI (correct response rate around 90% in typically developing individuals). We further investigated the relationship between task performance and estimated cognitive ability (verbal and non-verbal) in addition to everyday adaptive behavior skills. Those answering correctly (72.5%) scored significantly higher across cognitive and adaptive behavior measures compared to those answering incorrectly. Furthermore, 57.1% of individuals with estimated cognitive ability scores below the median value answered correctly compared to 89.5% of individuals scoring above the median, with similar values found for adaptive behavior skills (57.9% vs 94.4%). This preliminary finding suggests sound-shape matching deficits are relatively common in DS but may be restricted to individuals of lower ability as opposed to being a general characteristic of DS. Further studies investigating aspects of MSI across a range of modalities are necessary to fully characterise the nature of MSI in DS and to explore underlying neural correlates and mechanisms.

Figural a Flexibility Test for Improving Creative Thinking in an Arabic Learning Environment A Saudi Arabia-Based Case Study

The capability of graduates to be flexible in the face of rapidly altering situations is an increasingly crucial requirement that teachers should be conscious of, given that persistent development and technological progress are characteristic of contemporary life. Proficiency for learning and cognitive abilities are two areas in which learners need to acquire knowledge. Cognitive spatial ability has various dynamics, the assessment of which can be undertaken through numerous techniques. The major objectives of this paper are to develop a web-based system for measuring adult cognitive ability within an Arabic learning environment, in addition to enhancing their creative thinking and learning capabilities through utilising the kit of factor referenced cognitive tests, devised by Ekstrom et al. (1976). The web-based system will focus on the figural flexibility test (Toothpicks test - planning patterns – storage test). Each test has its own objective with regard to assisting with the measurement of people’s creative ability in different ways, as a means of enhancing creative thinking and learning. Prior to constructing the figural flexibility test system, we are going to distribute a questionnaire in order to assess and examine certain crucial aspects, to inform the construction of our system. The questionnaires were distributed to university students in the Faculty of Computing and Information Technology (FCIT), in addition to random distribution via email and social media, namely, Facebook, Twitter and WhatsApp. Over 500 questionnaires were distributed with 400 responses received. The objective was to assess the new system’s feasibility, as well as to design a system that meets the user’s requirements. As a result of the questionnaire, 77% of people were found to believe that creating a web-based system can assist students with developing their creative thinking and learning abilities.

Limitations, depressive symptoms, and quality of life among a population-based sample of young adults with congenital heart defects.

Little population-based data exist on limitations and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in adults with congenital heart defects (CHD). We used 2004 to 2012 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data to identify a population-based sample of young adults ages 18 to 40 years reporting health symptoms or healthcare encounters in the previous year. Comparing adults reporting CHD to others, we examined the prevalence of cognitive, physical, and activity limitations, depressive symptoms, and physical and mental HRQoL. We used chi square tests to examine differences in demographic characteristics, logistic regression to generate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR), and linear regression to examine HRQoL. Multivariable associations were adjusted for sex, age, race/ethnicity, and smoking status. All analyses were conducted in SUDAAN using weights to account for clustering within sampling units and nonresponse. Fifty-nine adults reported CHD (weighted prevalence = 0.1%; representing 700,000 U.S. adults from 2004 to 2012 or, on average, 80,000 per year) and 54,011 did not. No demographic characteristics differed significantly by CHD status except health insurance; 31.5% of adults with CHD, compared with 11.0% without, reported public insurance (p = 0.01). Compared with their counterparts, adults reporting CHD had a higher prevalence of cognitive (aPR = 2.7, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.0, 7.2), physical (aPR = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.9, 8.2), and activity limitations (aPR = 4.8, 95% CI: 2.6, 9.1), and poorer physical HRQoL (p = 0.004). No differences were observed in depressive symptoms and mental HRQoL by CHD status. Physical health and cognitive abilities of adults with CHD were compromised compared with adults without CHD. Birth Defects Research (Part A) 106:580-586, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Chronic Stress During Adolescence Impairs and Improves Learning and Memory in Adulthood

HIGHLIGHTS This study tested the effects of adolescent-stress on adult learning and memory.Adolescent-stressed rats had enhanced reversal learning compared to unstressed rats.Adolescent-stress exposure made working memory more vulnerable to disturbance.Adolescent-stress did not affect adult associative learning or reference memory.Exposure to acute stress can cause a myriad of cognitive impairments, but whether negative experiences continue to hinder individual as they age is not as well understood. We determined how chronic unpredictable stress during adolescence affects multiple learning and memory processes in adulthood. Using male Sprague Dawley rats, we measured learning (both associative and reversal) and memory (both reference and working) starting 110 days after completion of an adolescent-stress treatment. We found that adolescent-stress affected adult cognitive abilities in a context-dependent way. Compared to rats reared without stress, adolescent-stressed rats exhibited enhanced reversal learning, an indicator of behavioral flexibility, but showed no change in associative learning and reference memory abilities. Working memory, which in humans is thought to underpin reasoning, mathematical skills, and reading comprehension, may be enhanced by exposure to adolescent-stress. However, when adolescent-stressed animals were tested after a novel disturbance, they exhibited a 5-fold decrease in working memory performance while unstressed rats continued to exhibit a linear learning curve. These results emphasize the capacity for stress during adolescence to transform the cognitive abilities of adult animals, even after stress exposure has ceased and animals have resided in safe environments for the majority of their lifespans.

The impact of premorbid and current intellect in schizophrenia: cognitive, symptom, and functional outcomes.

Background:Cognitive heterogeneity among people with schizophrenia has been defined on the basis of premorbid and current intelligence quotient (IQ) estimates. In a relatively large, community cohort, we aimed to independently replicate and extend cognitive subtyping work by determining the extent of symptom severity and functional deficits in each group.Methods:A total of 635 healthy controls and 534 patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder were recruited through the Australian Schizophrenia Research Bank. Patients were classified into cognitive subgroups on the basis of the Wechsler Test of Adult Reading (a premorbid IQ estimate) and current overall cognitive abilities into preserved, deteriorated, and compromised groups using both clinical and empirical (k-means clustering) methods. Additional cognitive, functional, and symptom outcomes were compared among the resulting groups.Results:A total of 157 patients (29%) classified as ‘preserved’ performed within one s.d. of control means in all cognitive domains. Patients classified as ‘deteriorated’ (n=239, 44%) performed more than one s.d. below control means in all cognitive domains except estimated premorbid IQ and current visuospatial abilities. A separate 138 patients (26%), classified as ‘compromised,’ performed more than one s.d. below control means in all cognitive domains and displayed greater impairment than other groups on symptom and functional measures.Conclusions:In the present study, we independently replicated our previous cognitive classifications of people with schizophrenia. In addition, we extended previous work by demonstrating worse functional outcomes and symptom severity in the compromised group.

Cognitive ability in adolescents born small for gestational age: Associations with fetal growth velocity, head circumference and postnatal growth

BackgroundSmall size at birth may be associated with impaired cognitive ability later in life.The aim of this study was to examine the effect of being born small for gestational age (SGA), with or without intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) on cognitive ability in late adolescence. Study designA follow-up study of a former cohort included 123 participants (52 males); 47 born SGA and 76 born appropriate for gestational age (AGA). Fetal growth velocity (FGV) was determined by serial ultrasound measurements during the third trimester. A control group matched for age and birthplace was included. The original Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) was administered, and verbal, performance and full-scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ) scores were calculated. ResultsThere was no difference in IQ between adolescents born SGA and AGA. FGV or IUGR during the third trimester did not influence cognitive ability in late adolescence. Full-scale IQ was positively related to head circumference (HC) in adolescence (B: 1.30, 95% CI: 0.32–2.28, p=0.01). HC at birth and three months was positively associated with full-scale IQ. Catch-up growth in the group of SGA children was associated with a significantly increased height, larger HC, increased levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and increased full-scale IQ compared to those born SGA without catch-up growth. ConclusionSGA and IUGR may not be harmful for adult cognitive ability, at least not in individuals born at near-term. However, known risk factors of impaired fetal growth may explain the link between early growth and cognitive ability in adulthood.

A life-span behavioral mechanism relating childhood conscientiousness to adult clinical health.

To investigate a life-span health-behavior mechanism relating childhood personality to adult clinical health. Childhood Big Five personality traits at mean age 10, adult Big Five personality traits, adult clinically assessed dysregulation at mean age 51 (a summary of dysregulated blood glucose, blood pressure, and lipids), and a retrospective, cumulative measure of life-span health-damaging behavior (lifetime smoking, physical inactivity, and body mass index from age 20) were assessed in the Hawaii Personality and Health Cohort (N = 759). Structural equation modeling was used to test the conceptual model with direct and indirect paths from a childhood Conscientiousness factor to an adult Conscientiousness factor, life-span health-damaging behaviors, educational attainment, adult cognitive ability, and adult clinical health. For both men and women, childhood Conscientiousness influenced health-damaging behaviors through educational attainment, and life-span health-damaging behaviors predicted dysregulation. Childhood Conscientiousness predicted adult Conscientiousness, which did not predict any other variables in the model. For men, childhood Conscientiousness predicted dysregulation through educational attainment and health-damaging behaviors. For women, childhood Conscientiousness predicted dysregulation through educational attainment and adult cognitive ability. Assessing cumulative life-span health behaviors is a novel approach to the study of health-behavior mechanisms. Childhood Conscientiousness appears to influence health assessed more than 40 years later through complex processes involving educational attainment, cognitive ability, and the accumulated effects of health behaviors, but not adult Conscientiousness.

Measuring disability, physical functions and cognitive abilities of adults: Survey enhancements and options for a new panel study

This paper reviews measures of the physical and cognitive abilities of adults in the context of a national household panel survey and considers whether a new household panel survey is needed to answer scientific and policy questions related to disability. To address this topic, we first review illustrative scientific and policy issues related to disability and functioning and review gaps in the nation’s disability-related data system. Next, we offer a set of key domains to be measured, review several additional covariates of interest, and describe existing summary measures to identify the population living with disability. Finally, we take up the challenging issue of tradeoffs in starting a new household survey versus enhancing existing studies or developing specialized studies with a focus on disability to address these issues.

Impaired adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive ability in a mouse model of intrastriatal hemorrhage

Thrombin released by hematoma is an important mediator of the secondary injury of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), however, the effect of thrombin on adult neurogenesis and cognitive ability remains elusive. In this study, intrastriatal injection of 0.05U thrombin didn't affect the neurogenesis at the subgranular zone (SGZ), which was distal to the injection site. 0.1U thrombin increased the 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine+ (BrdU+, S-phase proliferating cells)/doublecortin+ (DCX+, immature neurons) double labelled neurons, but decreased BrdU+/NeuN+ double labelled mature neurons. Higher doses of thrombin (1U, 2U, and 5U) significantly decreased the BrdU+/DCX+ and BrdU+/NeuN+ double labelled cells. After 1U thrombin injection, cell apoptosis was found at the dentate gyrus of hippocampus at 3–24h, but not 5d post-injury. Thrombin infusion (1U) induced spatial memory deficits in Morris water maze test; whereas, hirudin, the thrombin antagonist, significantly reversed both neurogenesis loss and spatial learning and memory impairment. In conclusion, at least at short term (5 days) after striatum ICH, the effect of high dose of thrombin on neurogenesis of SGZ, and the spatial learning and memory ability, is detrimental.

Polymorphic variation in the epigenetic gene DNMT3B modulates the environmental impact on cognitive ability: A twin study

BackgroundThough cognitive abilities in adulthood are largely influenced by individual genetic background, they have also been shown to be importantly influenced by environmental factors. Some of these influences are mediated by epigenetic mechanisms. Accordingly, polymorphic variants in the epigenetic gene DNMT3B have been linked to neurocognitive performance. Since monozygotic (MZ) twins may show larger or smaller intrapair phenotypic differences depending on whether their genetic background is more or less sensitive to environmental factors, a twin design was implemented to determine if particular polymorphisms in the DNMT3B gene may be linked to a better (worse) response to enriched (deprived) environmental factors. MethodsApplying the variability gene methodology in a sample of 54 healthy MZ twin pairs (108 individuals) with no lifetime history of psychopathology, two DNMT3B polymorphisms were analyzed in relation to their intrapair differences for either intellectual quotient (IQ) or working memory performance. ResultsMZ twin pairs with the CC genotype for rs406193 SNP showed statistically significant larger intrapair differences in IQ than CT pairs. ConclusionsResults suggest that DNMT3B polymorphisms may explain variability in the IQ response to either enriched or impoverished environmental conditions. Accordingly, the applied methodology is shown as a potentially valuable tool for determining genetic markers of cognitive plasticity. Further research is needed to confirm this specific result and to expand on other putative genetic markers of environmental sensitivity.

Individual differences in cognitive ability at age 20 predict pulmonary function 35 years later

BackgroundPoor pulmonary function is associated with mortality and age-related diseases, and can affect cognitive performance. However, extant longitudinal studies indicate that early cognitive ability also affects later pulmonary function. Despite...

Adult cognitive ability and educational level in relation to concussions in childhood and adolescence: A population study of young men

Objective: To investigate the relationship of concussion(s) suffered through childhood and adolescence with completed level of school education and cognitive ability in young adulthood.Methods: Educational level and scores on a test of cognitive ability were obtained for a cohort of 130 298 young men processed by the Danish draft board. Of these, 6146 had, at some age from birth onwards, been briefly admitted to hospital with a main discharge diagnosis of concussion. A further 402 had two such concussions and 48 had three or more.Results: Educational level and cognitive ability test scores were negatively associated with the number of concussions and the age at concussion(s). Most markedly, compared to the 123 684 non-concussed men, those with two or more concussions had lower educational levels (OR = 0.48; 95% CI = 0.26–0.89), as also did those sustaining one concussion between the age of 13 up to the time of testing (OR = 0.47: 0.42–0.52).Conclusions: Since concussions do not generally have long-term effects, the results suggest that lower educational level is primarily a risk factor for sustaining a concussion at all ages, but in particular in adolescence more than in childhood and in the case of multiple concussions. It should, however, be recognized that, in some proportion of cases, the educational deficits have probably arisen as a consequence of the persistent symptoms of a lengthy post-concussional syndrome.

Improving data retention in EEG research with children using child-centered eye tracking.

Event Related Potentials (ERPs) elicited by visual stimuli have increased our understanding of developmental disorders and adult cognitive abilities for decades; however, these studies are very difficult with populations who cannot sustain visual attention such as infants and young children. Current methods for studying such populations include requiring a button response, which may be impossible for some participants, and experimenter monitoring, which is subject to error, highly variable, and spatially imprecise. We developed a child-centered methodology to integrate EEG data acquisition and eye-tracking technologies that uses "attention-getters" in which stimulus display is contingent upon the child's gaze. The goal was to increase the number of trials retained. Additionally, we used the eye-tracker to categorize and analyze the EEG data based on gaze to specific areas of the visual display, compared to analyzing based on stimulus presentation. The number of trials retained was substantially improved using the child-centered methodology compared to a button-press response in 7-8 year olds. In contrast, analyzing the EEG based on eye gaze to specific points within the visual display as opposed to stimulus presentation provided too few trials for reliable interpretation. By using the linked EEG-eye-tracker we significantly increased data retention. With this method, studies can be completed with fewer participants and a wider range of populations. However, caution should be used when epoching based on participants' eye gaze because, in this case, this technique provided substantially fewer trials.