Adolescent Swimmers Research Articles

Left Ventricular Morphology in Different Periods of the Training Season in Elite Young Swimmers.

Training adaptation of the left ventricle (LV) and it's reversibility following the cessation of training in adults is well known and also studied in children. In the current study we describe the changes in the LV morphology in association with the training season during a 1.5 year follow-up period. 15 elite adolescent swimmers, seven girls and 8 boys with 6 years of swimming history and 20 hr per week training were observed. Their data were compared with 15 age and gender matched nonathletes. LV adaptation was measured with 2D-echocardiography at the baseline preseason and every 3 months, according to the macro cyclic periods of training. Nonathletes were observed at the first and fifth stage of the study. Remarkable LV morphological adaptation has been detected in the swimmers. The greatest LV muscle mass (LVMM: 228 ± 46g) and smallest end-diastolic diameter (LVIDd:44.9 ± 3.4mm) were observed at the end of the second general endurance preparation period (GEP2), but the LVMM/BSA (Rel.LVMM: 85 ± 10g/m) failed to change during the follow-up in athletes. On the basis of our results, we suggest comparing absolute LV dimensions only in studies made at the same training period to avoid bias due to alterations with the training season.

The Association between Anthropometric Variables, Functional Movement Screen Scores and 100 m Freestyle Swimming Performance in Youth Swimmers

This study examined the association between anthropometric variables, Functional Movement Screen (FMS) scores and 100 m freestyle swimming performance in early adolescent swimmers. Fifty competitive, national level, youth swimmers (21 males, 29 females, mean age ± SD = 13.5 ± 1.5 years, age range 11–16 years) performed an “all-out” 100 m freestyle (front crawl) swim as fast as they could in a 50 m pool. A median divide for 100 m timed swim was also used to divide the sample into faster or slower groups. Height, body mass, skinfolds and limb lengths were also assessed. Maturation was calculated by proxy using anthropometric measures and participants also undertook the FMS as a measure of functional performance. Backwards linear regression indicated a significant model (p = 0.0001, Adjusted R2 = 0.638) explaining 63.8% of the variance in swim performance with total sum of skinfolds, upper leg length, lower leg length, hand length and total height significantly contributing to the model. Swimmers who were classed as fast had lower total sum of skinfolds (p = 0.005) and higher total FMS score (p = 0.005) compared to their slower peers. In summary, this study indicates that anthropometric variables significantly explained the variance in 100 m freestyle swimming performance in youth swimmers.

The effect of vitamin C on bronchoconstriction and respiratory symptoms caused by exercise: a review and statistical analysis.

Physical activity increases oxidative stress and therefore the antioxidant effects of vitamin C administration might become evident in people undertaking vigorous exercise. Vitamin C is involved in the metabolism of histamine, prostaglandins, and cysteinyl leukotrienes, all of which appear to be mediators in the pathogenesis of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB). Three studies assessing the effect of vitamin C on patients with EIB were subjected to a meta-analysis and revealed that vitamin C reduced postexercise FEV1 decline by 48% (95% CI: 33% to 64%). The correlation between postexercise FEV1 decline and respiratory symptoms associated with exercise is poor, yet symptoms are the most relevant to patients. Five other studies examined subjects who were under short-term, heavy physical stress and revealed that vitamin C reduced the incidence of respiratory symptoms by 52% (95% CI: 36% to 65%). Another trial reported that vitamin C halved the duration of the respiratory symptoms in male adolescent competitive swimmers. Although FEV1 is the standard outcome for assessing EIB, other outcomes may provide additional information. In particular, the mean postexercise decline of FEF50 is twice the decline of FEV1. Schachter and Schlesinger (1982) reported the effect of vitamin C on exercise-induced FEF60 levels in 12 patients suffering from EIB and their data are analyzed in this paper. The postexercise FEF60 decline was greater than 60% for five participants and such a dramatic decline indicates that the absolute postexercise FEF60 level becomes an important outcome in its own right. Vitamin C increased postexercise FEF60 levels by 50% to 150% in those five participants, but had no significant effect in the other seven participants. Thus, future research on the effects of vitamin C on EIB should not be restricted to measuring only FEV1. Vitamin C is inexpensive and safe, and further study on those people who have EIB or respiratory symptoms associated with exercise is warranted.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1710-1492-10-58) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of caffeine, L-carnitine and their combination on 400-m freestyle performance in female swimmers

This study is aimed to examine the effect of caffeine ,L- carnitine, and their combination on lactate blood level, and exercise time during a 400 m freestyle swimming trial. 16 adolescent female freestyle swimmers were randomly divided into 4 groups; caffeine (3mg/kg), carnitine (1.5g), caffeine + carnitine (3 mg/kg + 1.5 g), and placebo. Supplements were consumed on 4 separate occasions before completing maximal 400-m freestyle trial. In each of the trials, Supplements were consumed 30 min prior to testing by Applying a single blind experimental design then the Statistical analysis was carried out on the relevant data using anova test. No significant differences (p =0 .05) were observed for performance in all groups whereas blood blood lactate concentration values in min 1 were lower in the caffeine trials compare to other groups. These findings showing that consuming 3mg/kg caffeine ,1.5 g L-carnitine and their combination has no meaningful effect on performance.

Swimming and Spinal Deformities: A Cross-Sectional Study

To compare the prevalence of spinal deformities and low back pain (LBP) in adolescent competitive swimmers and normal controls. This was a cross-sectional study with convenience sample of 112 adolescent competitive swimmers (62 females) compared with 217 students (106 females) of the same age (12.5 years). We designed a questionnaire to collect data on LBP and measured the angle of trunk rotation with a Bunnell scoliometer to screen for scoliosis, along with the plumbline distances for kyphosis and lordosis. Clinical cutoffs defined in the literature for detection of spinal deformities were applied. Analyses were performed using the t test and χ(2) test, and ORs and 95% CIs were calculated. Swimming was found to increase the risk of trunk asymmetries (OR, 1.86; 95% CI, 1.08-3.20). Swimming also increased the risk of hyperkyphosis (OR, 2.26; 95% CI, 1.35-3.77) and hyperlordosis (OR, 2.24; 95% CI, 1.06-4.73), and increased LBP in females by 2.1-fold (95% CI, 1.08-4.06). Swimming is associated with an increased risk of trunk asymmetries and hyperkyphosis. Although swimming has been considered a complete sport and a treatment option for scoliosis, our data contradict that approach, and also show a higher prevalence of LBP in females.

LB021-MON: The Impact of a Nutrition Workshop on Improving Adherence to Mediterranean Diet and Nutrition Knowledge Among Adolescent Swimmers

LB021-MON: The Impact of a Nutrition Workshop on Improving Adherence to Mediterranean Diet and Nutrition Knowledge Among Adolescent Swimmers

Acute versus chronic supplementation of sodium citrate on 200 m performance in adolescent swimmers

BackgroundA double-blinded, placebo-controlled, cross-over design was used to investigate whether two different sodium citrate dihydrate (Na-CIT) supplementation protocols improve 200 m swimming performance in adolescent swimmers.MethodsTen, male swimmers (14.9 ± 0.4 years of age; 63.5 ± 4 kg) performed four 200 m time trials with the following treatments: acute (ACU) supplementation (0.5 g kg-1 administered 120 min pre-trial), acute placebo (PLC-A), chronic (CHR) supplementation (0.1 g∙kg-1 for three days and 0.3 g kg-1 on the forth day 120 min pre-trial), and chronic placebo (PLC-C). The order of the trials was randomized, with at least a six-day wash-out period between trials. Blood samples were collected by finger prick pre-ingestion, 100 min post-ingestion, and 3 min post-trial. Performance time, rate of perceived exertion, pH, base excess, bicarbonate and lactate concentration were measured.ResultsPost-ingestion bicarbonate and base excess were higher (P < 0.05) in both the ACU and CHR trials compared to placebo showing adequate pre-exercise alkalosis. However, performance time, rate of perceived exertion as well as post-trial pH and lactate concentration were not significantly different between trials. Further analysis revealed that five swimmers, identified as responders, improved their performance time by 1.03% (P < 0.05) and attained higher post-trial lactate concentrations in the ACU versus PLC-A trial (P < 0.05). They also had significantly higher post-trial lactate concentrations compared to the non-responders in the ACU and CHR trials.ConclusionsAcute supplementation of Na-CIT prior to 200 m swimming performance led to a modest time improvement and higher blood lactate concentrations in only half of the swimmers while the chronic Na-CIT supplementation did not provide any ergogenic effect in this group of adolescent swimmers.Trial registrationClinicaltrials.gov NCT01835912.

Swimming training repercussion on metabolic and structural bone development; benefits of the incorporation of whole body vibration or pilometric training; the RENACIMIENTO project.

Enviromental factors such as exercise participation and nutrition have often been linked to bone improvements. However, not all sports have the same effects, being non-osteogenic sports such as swimming defined as negative or neutral sports to practice regarding bone mass by some authors, similarly exercise-diet interaction in especific groups is still not clear. To present the methodology of the RENACIMENTO project that aims to evaluate body composition and more specifically bone mass by several techniques in adolescent swimmers and to observe the effects and perdurability of whole body vibration (WBV) and jumping intervention (JIN) on body composition and fitness on this population and explore posible diet interactions. Randomized controlled trial. 78 swimmers (12-17 y) and 26 sex- and age-matched controls will participate in this study. Dual energy X-ray, peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography, Quantitative Ultrasound, Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis, and anthropometry measurements will be performed in order to evaluate body composition. Physical activity, nutrition, pubertal development and socio-economical status may act as confounders of body composition and therefore will also be registered. Several fitness factors regarding strength, endurance, performance and others will also be registered to evaluate differences with controls and act as confounders. A 7-month WBV therapy will be performed by 26 swimmers consisting of a training of 15 minutes 3 times per week. An 8 month JIM will also be performed by 26 swimmers 3 times per week. The remaining 26 swimmers will continue their normal swimming training. Four evaluations will be performed, the first one in order to describe differences between swimmers and controls. The second one to describe the effects of the interventions and the third and fourth evaluations to describe the perdurability of the effects of the WBV and JIN. The RENACIMIENTO project will allow to answer several questions regarding body composition, fitness, bone mass and interaction with diet of adolescent swimmers, describe swimming as a positive, negative or neutral sport to practice regarding these parameters and elucidate the effects and perdurability of WBV and JIM on body composition.

Vitamin D supplementation and upper respiratory tract infections in adolescent swimmers: a randomized controlled trial.

Observational studies identified associations between vitamin D insufficiency (serum 25(OH)D < 30ng·ml-1) and risk of upper respiratory infection (URI). Swimmers are highly prone to URIs, which might hinder their performance. The aim of this study was to examine if vitamin D3 supplementation reduces URI burden in vitamin D-insufficient swimmers. Fifty-five competitive adolescent swimmers with vitamin D insufficiency were randomized to receive vitamin D3 (2,000IU·d-1) or placebo for 12 winter weeks. A URI symptom questionnaire was completed weekly. Serum 25(OH)D concentrations were measured by radio-immunoassay before and after supplementation. We used linear regression to examine the relation between the change in 25(OH)D concentrations during the trial, and the duration and severity of URIs. There were no between-group differences in the frequency, severity, or duration of URIs. Exploratory analyses revealed that in the placebo group only, the change in 25(OH)D concentrations during the trial was highly associated with the duration of URIs (r = -0.90,p < .001), and moderately associated with the severity of URIs (r = -0.65,p = .043). The between-group differences for duration were highly significant. Vitamin D3 supplementation in adolescent swimmers with vitamin D insufficiency did not reduce URI burden. However, larger decreases in serum 25(OH)D concentrations were associated with significantly longer and more severe URI episodes.

Nutrition for swimming.

Swimming is a sport that requires considerable training commitment to reach individual performance goals. Nutrition requirements are specific to the macrocycle, microcycle, and individual session. Swimmers should ensure suitable energy availability to support training while maintaining long term health. Carbohydrate intake, both over the day and in relation to a workout, should be manipulated (3-10 g/kg of body mass/day) according to the fuel demands of training and the varying importance of undertaking these sessions with high carbohydrate availability. Swimmers should aim to consume 0.3 g of high-biological-value protein per kilogram of body mass immediately after key sessions and at regular intervals throughout the day to promote tissue adaptation. A mixed diet consisting of a variety of nutrient-dense food choices should be sufficient to meet the micronutrient requirements of most swimmers. Specific dietary supplements may prove beneficial to swimmers in unique situations, but should be tried only with the support of trained professionals. All swimmers, particularly adolescent and youth swimmers, are encouraged to focus on a well-planned diet to maximize training performance, which ensures sufficient energy availability especially during periods of growth and development. Swimmers are encouraged to avoid rapid weight fluctuations; rather, optimal body composition should be achieved over longer periods by modest dietary modifications that improve their food choices. During periods of reduced energy expenditure (taper, injury, off season) swimmers are encouraged to match energy intake to requirement. Swimmers undertaking demanding competition programs should ensure suitable recovery practices are used to maintain adequate glycogen stores over the entirety of the competition period.

Adolescent Swimmers: Breathing Complaints and Prescription Asthma Medication Use and Misuse

This study investigated the incidence of asthma and breathing difficulties in a sample of 103 competitive adolescent swimmers. In addition, the use and potential misuse of common asthma medications as well as other prescription medication was examined. Data indicated that adolescent female swimmers experienced exercise-related breathing difficulties more frequently than male swimmers. Older swimmers not only swam more often and for greater yardage than younger swimmers, they also participated in more structured competitions than did younger swimmers. Breathing difficulty was positively correlated with increased practice demands (number and length of practice) and stopping practice early due to breathing difficulties. Age-related patterns in seeking and stealing medication from peers was also evident, and this risky health behavior was inversely related to swimming participation. Data are discussed in relation to implications for pediatric psychologists and pediatric health care providers.

Effects of endurance and high-intensity swimming exercise on the redox status of adolescent male and female swimmers

Throughout adolescence, swimmers begin to carry out demanding endurance and high-intensity training sets, the effect of which on redox status is largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of 2000-m continuous swimming and 6 × 50-m maximal swimming on the redox status of adolescent swimmers. Fifteen male and 15 female swimmers, aged 14–18 years, provided blood samples before, immediately after, 1 h after, and 24 h after each exercise for the determination of redox status parameters. Oxidative damage was short-lived and manifest as increases in 8-hydroxy-2΄-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) 1 h after high-intensity exercise (39%, P < 0.001) and in malondialdehyde immediately after both exercises (65%, P < 0.001). Alterations in antioxidant parameters were sustained during recovery: reduced glutathione decreased 24 h post-exercise (11%, P = 0.001), uric acid increased gradually after high-intensity exercise (29%, P < 0.001) and bilirubin peaked 24 h post-exercise (29%, P < 0.001). Males had higher 8-OHdG (49%, P = 0.001) and uric acid (29%, P < 0.001) concentrations than females. However, females showed higher values of malondialdehyde than males immediately post-exercise (30%, P = 0.039), despite lower pre-exercise values. In conclusion, both endurance and high-intensity exercise perturbed the redox balance without inducing prolonged oxidative damage in trained adolescent male and female swimmers. These swimming training trials were not found to be detrimental to the redox homeostasis of adolescents.

Markers of biological stress and mucosal immunity during a week leading to competition in adolescent swimmers.

In this study we examined changes in the salivary concentrations of immunoglobulin A (sIgA), cortisol (sC), testosterone (sT), and testosterone-to-cortisol ratio (T/C) in 21 competitive swimmers, 11–15 years old, during a week leading to competition as compared to a control (noncompetition) week. No day-to-day changes or significant differences between weeks were observed for sIgA (47.9 ± 4.4 versus 54.9 ± 5.2 μg/mL for control versus competition week, resp.), sC (2.7 ± 0.2 versus 2.5 ± 0.2 ng/mL for control versus competition week, resp.), and T/C ratio (83.4 ± 7.0 versus 77.9 ± 7.7 for control versus competition week, resp.). In contrast, sT was significantly lower during the week of competition (154.5 ± 11.3 pg/mL) as compared to the control week (181.3 ± 11.5 pg/mL) suggesting that the swimmers were in a catabolic state, although this did not have a negative effect on their performance. In conclusion, salivary cortisol did not change between the two weeks, and thus competition stress was relatively low, and mucosal immunity was unaffected in these young athletes prior to competition.

Nutritional Knowledge and Attitudes of Adolescent Swimmers in Trinidad and Tobago

Purpose. To investigate the level of nutrition knowledge and attitude of adolescent male and female swimmers training competitively in Trinidad and Tobago. Methodology. A self-administered questionnaire, which consisted of 21 nutrition knowledge and 11 attitude statements, was utilized to assess the level of nutrition knowledge and attitude of adolescent swimmers. For the assessment of nutrition knowledge, correct answers were given a score of “1” and incorrect answers were given a score of “0.” For the evaluation of attitude towards nutrition, a score ranging from 1 to 5 was assigned to each response; “5” was given to the most positive response, and “1” was given to the most negative. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21.0. Results. Two hundred and twenty swimmers with a mean age of 14.56 ± 2.544 completed the questionnaire. The mean nutrition knowledge score was 10.97 ± 2.897 and mean attitude score was 41.69 ± 6.215. Nutrition knowledge was positively and significantly related to the number of reported nutrition sources (r = 0.172, P = 0.005). Nutrition knowledge was positively and significantly related to the attitude (r = 0.130, P = 0.027). Conclusions and Implication. Athletes lack nutrition knowledge but have a positive attitude towards nutrition, which may indicate receptiveness to future nutrition education.

DIETARY ANALYSIS OF REGIONAL AND NATIONAL LEVEL YOUTH SWIMMERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Optimised nutritional intake is well established as being one of a multiplicity of factors that contributes to the development of attaining peak sporting performance. Few studies have sought to investigate...

Vitamin D Concentrations and Physical Performance in Competitive Adolescent Swimmers

Serum vitamin D concentrations (25[OH]D) are associated with physical performance in the general population, but few studies have been published in athletes. 80 competitive adolescent swimmers from both sexes were tested for serum 25(OH)D concentrations, grip strength, balance and swimming performance at several speeds. Spearman's correlations were used to examine the associations between 25(OH)D concentrations and age-adjusted measures of performance. Performance parameters were also compared between vitamin D sufficient (n = 27), insufficient (25[OH]D ranging 20-29.9 ng/ml, n = 42), and deficient (25[OH]D < 20 ng/ ml, n = 11) participants. No significant associations were found between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and any of the performance measures, with no significant differences found between vitamin D sufficient, insufficient and deficient participants. In competitive adolescent swimmers, serum vitamin D concentrations were not associated with strength, balance or swimming performance. Vitamin D insufficient/deficient swimmers did not have reduced performance.

Body pedagogies, coaching and culture: three Australian swimmers’ lived experiences

Background: This paper reports doctoral research that explored body pedagogies in sport coaching and culture. Few studies have focused on body pedagogies as an integral dimension of sport coaching and on the experience of being coached and a member of a particular sporting culture. Even less is known about the long-term impact that particular body pedagogies may have on athletes’ lives, health and well-being. Purpose: This paper seeks to contribute to a growing literature that acknowledges coaching as a complex pedagogical and social process. It reports on research aimed at providing new insights into the expression and lived experiences of body pedagogies in the context of elite and sub-elite swimming. A particular aim of the research was to address the impact, if any, of body pedagogies on swimmers’ lives, health and well-being – first, at the time when the participants were adolescent elite and sub-elite swimmers, and second, some 10–30 years later. Methods: The research utilised narrative ethnography and autoethnography to explore the experiences of three female participants as adolescents participating at sub-elite and elite levels in Australian swimming, and as adults. Semi-structured interviews and collaborative development of narrative accounts were used to generate stories of experiences as adolescent swimmers and as adults in the present day. Findings: The experiences of these three swimmers suggest that body pedagogies focused on weight, shape, body fat and performance permeated Australian competitive swimming culture. These body pedagogies formed prominent aspects of the discourse of the participants’ coaches and their practice within this study. Furthermore, body pedagogies were shown to have powerful and long-standing influence upon the participants’ feelings about their bodies and themselves. This research also suggests, however, elements of mediation of and resistance to dominant ideas and established pedagogical practices. Conclusion: The research provides vivid insights into the subtle yet extremely powerful ways in which particular ideas ‘operate’ and become integral to ways of ‘being’ and ‘acting’ through body pedagogies within but also beyond both the sub-elite and elite contexts of Australian swimming sporting culture. Docility was shown by the three swimmers as they internalised body pedagogies and control, until they became their own ‘controller or overseer’ of their swimmer bodies. This points to a need for more research that focuses on the experiences and impact of body pedagogies in sport coaching.

Winning looks: body image among adolescent female competitive swimmers

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore and describe the circumstances related to body image among adolescent female swimmers. Thirteen in-depth interviews were conducted with 11–13 year-old swimmers who trained at USA Swimming clubs. Using grounded theory methodology, a theoretical model consisting of a core category embedded in four themes emerged. Creating Myself included key components of self-presentation, perception and attitude encircled in four contextual themes: The Backdrop (previous thoughts, feelings and experiences), Responses from Others (comments from peers, family and important others), The Swimmer Body (the swim suit, physical traits, mental qualities and beliefs about swimmers’ physiques) and Being and Getting Comfortable (self-observation, current thoughts, feelings and self-management strategies). Implications of the model for research and professional practise were discussed.

Stress and Coping Among Adolescents Across a Competitive Swim Season

This study qualitatively examined the congruence between anticipated and experienced stressors and coping, and approaches to coping by elite adolescent swimmers across a competitive season. Eight swimmers were interviewed before and after 4 swim meets in a season. Data collection and analysis were guided by theories of stress and coping. Accuracy of anticipating stressors was low, and the stressors and coping strategies were variable across the season. Idiographic profiles were created for each athlete and grouped according to similar characteristics. Three groups included athletes who (a) generally perceived stressors as something to be avoided, (b) generally perceived stressors as problems to be solved, or (c) generally perceived swimming as fun and minimally stressful. These patterns appeared to be associated with anticipating stressors, highlighting the complex and dynamic nature of stress and coping among adolescent athletes.

The inter-tester reliability of anthropometric measurement with portable tools

Aim: To determine whether height, weight, body mass index (BMI) and chest width, as measured using portable tools, have adequate inter-tester reliability for use in field-based research. Methodology: Same-day repeated-measures inter-tester reliability study in 15 adolescent swimmers and three testers. Height was taken with a portable stadiometer and weight with a digital floor scale. BMI was calculated using weight in kilograms/height in metres squared. Chest width was measured at the level of the inferior border of the spinous process of T7 at the end of expiration, with an anthropometer. Major findings: The SEMs were 3.8 mm for height, 0.48 kg for weight, 0.22 kg/m2 for BMI and 12.8 mm for chest width. Intra-class coefficients (ICCs) for the anthropometric variables were all above 0.98, except for chest width (0.80). Significant differences between testers for height and chest width existed, but not for weight and BMI. Conclusions: Anthropometric measures that are measured using field-based tools have acceptable inter-tester reliability for use in field-based assessment.