Adolescent Sports Research Articles

Looking Back and Looking Around: How Athletes, Parents and Coaches See Psychosocial Development in Adolescent Performance Sport.

Sport has the potential to support psychosocial development in young people. However, extant studies have tended to evaluate purpose-built interventions, leaving regular organised sport relatively overlooked. Moreover, previous work has tended to concentrated on a narrow range of outcomes. To address these gaps, we conducted a season-long ethnography of a youth performance sport club based on a novel Realist Evaluation approach. We construed the club as a social intervention within a complex system of agents and structures. The results are published in this special issue as a two-part series. In this first paper, we detail the perceptions of former and current club parents, players and coaches, using them to build a set of programme theories. The resulting network of outcomes (i.e., self, emotional, social, moral and cognitive) and generative mechanisms (i.e., the attention factory, the greenhouse for growth, the personal boost and the real-life simulator), spanning across multiple contextual layers, provides a nuanced understanding of stakeholders’ views and experiences. This textured perspective of the multi-faceted process of development provides new insights for administrators, coaches and parents to maximise the developmental properties of youth sport, and signposts new avenues for research in this area.

Musculoskeletal pain and its association with health status, maturity, and sports performance in adolescent sport school students: a 2-year follow-up

BackgroundMusculoskeletal pain and its risk factors are rarely assessed in studies on adolescent athletes. The aim was to identify risk factors at baseline that were associated with the persistence or development of musculoskeletal pain at a two-year follow-up in adolescent sport school students, and to study cross-sectional associations at follow-up between musculoskeletal pain and sports performance.MethodsSport school students (79 boys and 52 girls, aged 14 years at baseline) were divided into infrequent (never–monthly) or frequent (weekly–almost daily) pain groups, based on frequency of pain using a pain mannequin. Logistic regression analyses were performed to study longitudinal associations between frequent pain at follow-up and baseline variables: pain group, number of regions with frequent pain, health status by EQ-5D, maturity offset (pre, average, or post peak height velocity), and sports (contact or non-contact). Linear regression analyses were used to study cross-sectional associations between pain groups and 20-m sprint, agility T-test, counter-movement jump, and grip strength at follow-up. Results were stratified by sex.ResultsA higher percentage of girls than boys reported frequent pain at follow-up (62% vs. 37%; p = 0.005). In boys, frequent pain at follow-up was associated with being pre peak height velocity at baseline (OR 3.884, CI 1.146–13.171; p = 0.029) and participating in non-contact sports (OR 3.429, CI 1.001–11.748; p = 0.050). In girls, frequent pain at follow-up was associated with having frequent pain in two or more body regions at baseline (OR 3.600, CI 1.033–12.542; p = 0.044), having a worse health status at baseline (OR 3.571, CI 1.026–12.434; p = 0.045), and participating in non-contact sports (OR 8.282, CI 2.011–34.116; p = 0.003). In boys, frequent pain was associated with worse performances in 20-m sprint and counter-movement jump, but not in agility T-test and grip strength.ConclusionsBaseline risk factors for having frequent pain at follow-up were late maturation in boys, frequent pain and worse health status in girls, and participation in non-contact sports in both sexes. Boys with pain performed worse in sports tests. Coaches and school health-care services should pay attention to the risk factors and work towards preventing pain from becoming persistent.

Study of Sleep Behaviour of Adolescent Athletes Sports School Malaysia Sabah

Many athletes do not realize that sleep is one of the necessary elements in their daily routine as athletes. For this reason, most athletes often neglect and do not practice good sleep behaviors in helping athletes to get quality sleep. This study was conducted to identify the sleep behavior of SSMS athletes and look at the differences in the sleep behavior of athletes based on age and also the level of athlete involvement and performance in sports. A total of 152 respondents were involved in this study. This study used the Athlete Sleep Behavior Questionnaire (ASBQ) which is a survey specifically designed to survey and evaluate the sleep behavioral characteristics of athletes. Significant difference F (2, 149) = 6.148, p = .003. Tukey HSD showed a significant mean score difference between the group of 13 to 15 years (M = 2.07, SP = 0.489) and the group of 18 years and above (M = 2.39, SP = 0.382) with a p value of .002.

Understanding the Roles of Sport and Alcohol Use in Adolescence on Physical and Sexual Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration in Young Adulthood: Findings From a Sex-Stratified Multilevel Analysis.

Adolescent peer groups shape beliefs that dictate behavioral norms, including intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration behaviors, with lasting influence into adulthood. This study examines the role of sport engagement and alcohol use in adolescence on perpetration of physical and sexual IPV in young adulthood. A secondary data analysis was conducted with data from 3411 male and 4318 female participants in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health study. Sports and other school activity participation, as well as alcohol use, were measured in middle and high school students. Intimate partner violence perpetration was measured six years later with items from the revised Conflict Tactics Scales. Sex-stratified logistic cross-classified multilevel analyses indicate that, for males, participation in football in adolescence was associated with higher odds of IPV perpetration in young adulthood (aOR:1.26, p = .01). For males and females, non-engagement in any school activities in adolescence was associated with higher odds of IPV perpetration in young adulthood (male aOR: 1.52, p < .01; female aOR: 1.19, p = .04). Alcohol use in adolescence was also associated with higher odds of IPV perpetration in young adulthood for both males and females, even when low level drinking (1-2 drinks in the past 12months) was reported (male aOR: 1.40, p < .01; female aOR: 1.38, p < .01). Random-effect estimates indicate small but significant contributions of adolescent peer, school, and neighborhood contexts on IPV perpetration in young adulthood for both boys and girls. These findings highlight that football engagement among boys, and alcohol use among boys and girls, are linked to longer-term risk for IPV perpetration, but engagement in other sports and school activities appear to serve as protective factors. These findings, taken with those regarding social context effects, suggest that positive social environment and networks in adolescence, inclusive of those offered in some sports, can be useful platforms for IPV prevention efforts.

Abstract MP44: Adolescent Team Sports Participation, Adiposity, And Inflammation Among Young Adult Child Maltreatment Survivors

Background: A body of literature shows that child maltreatment (CM) is associated with subsequent adiposity and inflammation, but few studies examine factors that buffer against these outcomes among survivors of CM. Child and adolescent team sports participation has been associated with positive mental and physical health outcomes, including decreased risk of obesity. However, it is unclear if these benefits extend to longer-term cardiometabolic outcomes in maltreated individuals, given that CM survivors often have impaired stress coping and may use obesogenic behaviors as a coping mechanism. The goal of this study was to assess, within a nationally representative sample of CM survivors, if sports team participation during adolescence is associated with decreased adiposity and inflammation in young adulthood. Methods: The analytic sample consisted of individuals who retrospectively self-reported CM (sexual, emotional, and physical abuse and neglect) in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N=3,298). We examined associations between intended team sports participation in grades 7-12 and BMI (kg/m2), waist circumference (cm), log transformed high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP; mg/L), obesity (&gt;30 kg/m2), high waist circumference (&gt;88.9 cm for women, &gt;101.6 cm for men), and elevated hsCRP (&gt;3 mg/L) at ages 24-32 using linear regression and predictive margins. Models adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, childhood household education, if raised by both biological parents, school type and size, subclinical infectious disease symptoms (hsCRP only), and BMI during adolescence. All analyses incorporated complex sample weighting. Results: 57% (1883/3298) of the sample reported plans to participate in sports teams during the school year as adolescents. The mean young adult BMI, waist circumference, and hsCRP values were 29.35 kg/m2 (SD=0.21), 98.64 cm (SD=0.50), and 4.73 mg/L (SD=0.17), respectively. In the overall sample, adolescent sports participation was inversely associated with waist circumference (B=-1.73,95% CI:-0.13, -2.13), log hsCPR (B=-0.25,95% CI:-0.13,-4.01), and elevated hsCRP (PR= 0.82,95% CI:0.74,0.92). When examining specific sports, the protective impact was especially pronounced among women who participated in track (BMI B=-2.37, 95% CI,-1.62,-3.13; waist circumference B=-5.11,95% CI:-3.14,-7.08; log hsCRP B=-.52,95% CI:-0.30,-0.74). Conclusions: There is evidence that team sports participation is associated with decreased adiposity and inflammation in men and women with histories of CM. Although intervention studies are needed to establish a causal relationship, these findings suggest that team sports participation during adolescence may help promote cardiometabolic health in survivors of CM.

Fair Play in a Context of Physical Education and Sports Behaviours.

The study examined prosocial behaviour and the perception of fair play in the context of physical education and sport (PES) in adolescents participating in sports, and those not undertaking sports at all. The aim of this study was to explore and indicate potential associations between an understanding of the concept of fair play and selected behaviours (e.g., abiding by the rules, obeying decisions of the referee and sportsmanship) in youth. In total, 1257 secondary school students, aged 16.1 ± 0.87 years (627 girls and 600 boys), were recruited. For assessing the level of fair play awareness (L), the Fair Play Moral Dimensions Concept Scale (FPMDCS) was used. To measure the declared level of prosocial behaviours of students, the survey My Physical Education Class (MPEC) was used. Participants were divided into groups in relation to training experience (no sports, amateur sports, professional sports) and subgroups, with levels according to their understanding of the Fair Play concept (L1 to L3). The results show significant difference in all dilemmas in various groups in relation to scores in subgroup L3 (p = 0.056; p = 0.012; p = 0.003) with regard to subgroups L2 and L1 in the level of understanding fair play. Overall, the percentage of respondents who view fair play only in the context of sport (L1) is 69%. Far fewer are those (31%) who understand it more broadly as a principle that applies to everyday life situations (L3). It seems to be crucial to promote moral development during PES activities, especially the value of respect.

Exploring Heterogeneity of Stepped Collaborative Care Treatment Response Trajectories after Adolescent Sports Injury Concussion

Objective: Few clinical trials of posttraumatic interventions have utilized symptom trajectory modeling to explore heterogeneity of treatment responses. The goal of this investigation was to conduct a secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial of stepped collaborative care for adolescents with sports and recreational related concussion and persistent symptoms of >1 month. Method: Trajectory modeling was used to examine the impact of randomization to the intervention as well as demographic, clinical, and injury characteristics on adolescent post-concussive symptom trajectories. Two hundred male and female adolescents were assessed >1 month after a concussion, and then 3-, 6- and 12-months later with a standardized measure of concussive symptoms, the Health and Behavior Inventory (HBI). Multinomial logistic regression was used to compare the association between intervention, demographic, clinical and injury characteristics with trajectory group membership. Results: Four post-concussive symptom trajectories emerged: recovery, remitting, low-persistent, and high-persistent. In adjusted analyses randomization to the intervention condition was associated with significantly greater odds of HBI recovery trajectory group membership (OR 3.29 95% CI 1.06–10.28). Female gender and prior concussion history were associated with significantly greater odds of high-persistent trajectory group membership relative to all other trajectories. Greater odds of high-persistent versus recovery group trajectory membership was observed for adolescents with a pre-injury history of anxiety and/or depressive disorders. Conclusions: Stepped collaborative care was associated with an increased odds of recovery versus high-persistent post-concussive symptom trajectories, while readily identifiable baseline characteristics were associated high-persistent symptoms. Future post-concussive clinical trials and practice improvement efforts could incorporate these observations.

Impact of sports participation on components of metabolic syndrome in adolescents: ABCD growth study.

This study aimed to analyze the impact of sports participation (12months of practice) on the components of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in both sexes. This is an observational longitudinal study, a part of which is entitled "Analysis of Behaviors of Children During Growth" (ABCD Growth Study), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil. The sample was composed of 171 adolescents (112 boys and 59 girls), divided into non-sports and sports groups. High-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c), triglycerides, and glucose were analyzed by the colorimetric method of dry chemistry and processed biochemically. Systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure were measured using an automatic device. Body fat was estimated using a densitometry scanner. Adolescents who practiced sports were younger (p-value=0.001) and had a lower peak height velocity (p-value=0.001) than the non-sports group. The differences (Δ) after 12months were of greater magnitude for the sportsgroup when compared to the non-sports group (p-value=0.013), glucose (moderate magnitude in favor of the sports group; p-value=0.001), HDL-c (small magnitude in favor of the sports group; p-value=0.0015), and MetS (moderate magnitude in favor of the sports group; p-value=0.001). The practice of sports in adolescents had a protective effect on the metabolic components of MetS.

Motivation Differences between Youth Single-Sport, Multi-Sport, and Single-Sport Specialized Athletes in the Western United States

The motivation for youth sport involvement may differ for single-sport (non-specialists), multi-sport, and single-sport specialized athletes. To investigate differences between adolescent single-sport athletes (NSSA), multi-sport athletes (MSA), and single-sport specialized athletes (SSSA) on measures of sport enjoyment and motivation. A secondary aim was to compare these variables between age groups. Adolescent sport participants in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade from the Western United States (n=306, age=13.0±1.0 yrs) completing the Sources of Enjoyment in Youth Sport Questionnaire (SEYSQ) that assesses sport enjoyment in the subscales of self-referenced competency (SRC), other-referenced competency and recognition (ORCR), effort expenditure (EE), competitive excitement (CE), affiliation with peers (AP), and positive parental involvement (PPI). The participants also reported their age, gender, grade, years of sport participation and sport status (NSSA, MSA, SSSA). SSSA reported significantly more enjoyment in all subscales except PPI when compared to NSSA (p&lt;0.05; ES 0.4 – 0.99). MSA and SSSA showed significant differences in the subscales of SRC and EE; however, effect size was small (0.37 and 0.33, respectively). Overall scores for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were significantly lower among NSSA compared to MSA and SSSA (p&lt;0.01) with no differences between MSA and SSSA (p&gt;0.05). Results revealed no significant differences in the SEYSQ’s subscales for age (p&gt;0.05). Within the parameters of this study, adolescents that specialize in a single sport or those who compete in multiple sport both rely on intrinsic and extrinsic sources of enjoyment for motivation in very similar ways; whereas adolescent NSSA are less motivated and experience less enjoyment from sport participation compared to MSA and SSSA. Keywords: adolescent, enjoyment, SEYSQ, motivation, sport psychology

Effects of Core Strength Training on Specialized Sports Abilities and Core Stability of Adolescent Tennis Players

Across the world, tennis as a competitive sport, is loved by many people. In the process of tennis playing, athletes are required to have strong physical capacity as well as strong mentality to resist pressure. If the athletes themselves have poor physical instantaneous force and endurance capacity, the performance of tennis sports will be greatly affected. Nowadays, core strength training has become a necessary training means and content for many competitive sports, and people have gradually realized that core strength not only has positive effects in the fields of fitness and rehabilitation, but also has a very important role in the field of competitive sports. In this study, core strength training is briefly analyzed, and then the significance of the core strength training for tennis sports is analyzed. The effects of implementing core strength training and routine training on the athletic capacity and core stability of adolescent tennis players are studied. Through periodic training, it is learned that the specialized tennis sports abilities of the experimental group gain an advantage over the control group (P < 0. 05); the core stability capacity of the experimental group has obvious advantages over the control group(P <0.05). Core strength training plays a significant role in strengthening adolescent tennis sports abilities, especially in terms of speed, strength durability and body stability. The effect from applicating core strength training method is especially prominent. It is hoped that this can provide an operative reference for the improvement of the competitive capability of adolescent tennis sports.

Body composition and eating behavior in non-professional adolescent female dancers

Dance is one of the most practiced sports in women's childhood and adolescence. It is often difficult for dancers to maintain a normal body composition without changing their eating habits, despite the presence of high intensity training. The study aims to investigate, through nutritional habits and body composition, the impact of this sports regime in the prepubertal period. Two groups of 10 adolescent dancers of classic and modern style were evaluated in terms of anthropometric parameters and hydration. Lifestyle, eating habits, adherence to Mediterranean diet, characteristics of menstrual cycle and risk stratification of Athletes' Triad Syndrome were evaluated through questionnaires. The data were reinterpreted based on the presence or absence of menarche. The average BMI value was within the normal range (17.9±2.2 kg/m2) in both groups. No significant differences emerged for anthropometric parameters and body composition between the two groups with the exclusion of the suprailiac fold which was significantly lower in G2 (classical: 0.1±0.1 mm) compared to G1 (modern: 11.0±6.6 mm) P<0.001. Instead, differences observed (P<0.05) was related to the presence or absence of the menstrual cycle. Despite the poor adherence to the Mediterranean diet, there was no evidence of risk of developing eating disorders or Athletes' Triad Syndrome. The training of classical and modern dance does not seem to have any negative impact on the body composition especially in pre-pubertal age. The onset of the menarche determines the major modification of the body composition.

Participação esportiva entre adolescentes e crianças brasileiras: revisão sistemática

Abstract The aim of this study is to describe the prevalence of sports participation in Brazilian children and adolescents through a systematic literature review. A search was carried out in the following electronic databases: MEDLINE, WEB OF SCIENCE, BIREME, SCIELO, and SCOPUS for manuscripts published until 2020, combining the keywords: “children”, “adolescents”, “prevalence”, and “sports participation”, in Portuguese and English. Twenty-six articles published between 2003 and 2020 were included in the review, with the aim of estimating the prevalence of participation in organized sports in Brazilian children and adolescents. Considering the regions where the studies were carried out, the majority were developed in the south (57.7%; n=15), followed by the southeast (19.2%; n=05), and northeast (15.4%; n=04), in addition to 7.7% (n=02) in all regions of the country. The data showed prevalence of sports participation ranging from 15.0% to 73.2% (mean of 44.8%) among children and adolescents, being higher in males (63.1%). From the results found, the need to develop public policies is evident, in order to favor adherence and maintenance of young people to sports practice, especially among those of the female sex.

Differences in Adolescent Sport Participation During the COVID-19 Pandemic by School Attendance Modality: A National Survey

Differences in Adolescent Sport Participation During the COVID-19 Pandemic by School Attendance Modality: A National Survey

Low energy availability and carbohydrate intake in competitive adolescent climbers

Competitive adolescent sport climbers are reported to keep very low energy intake in order to achieve the highest possible strength-to-mass ratio required for their sport. Long term low energy availability (&amp;lt; 30 kcal/kg fat free mass/day) is known to have a detrimental effect on health and performance. Due to the potential severity of the consequences and the lack of the data on specific population, our aim was to assess energy availability and dietary intake of 27 members of the Slovenian Youth Climbing Team (13–18 years of age). Three-day food and activity records, questionnaires and anthropometric measurements were used to determine participants’ energy availability, nutritional intake, avoidance of food groups and selected health history. Average energy availability in climbers was 27.5 ± 9.8 kcal/kg fat free mass/day and 63% of participants failed to meet the recommended 30 kcal/kg fat free mass/day. Their average carbohydrate (4.3 ± 1.3 g/kg body mass/day), calcium (780 ± 300 mg/day) and vitamin D (2.6 ± 2.3 µg/day) intake were also too low. Average protein intake was in recommended range, but 56% of participants did not meet the minimum recommended limit. Iron intake was too low in females (10 ± 5 mg/day; target 15 mg/day). Only 15% of participants reported not avoiding any food groups. The menstrual dysfunction was detected in five female climbers (36%); all had energy availability &amp;lt; 30 kcal/kg fat free mass/day. We recommend nutritional education of climbers, their coaches, and parents as well as regular individual nutritional assessment of competitive adolescent sport climbers.

Evaluation of Sports-Related Concussion in Children (5–12) and Adolescents (13–18)

The objective of this study was to examine the association between sport/non-sport concussions as well as age and time to recovery after concussion diagnosis in children and adolescents. There is an ongoing debate between policy makers and medical specialists on when is the appropriate time to allow children to begin playing contact sports. This dilemma is important because sports are incredibly prevalent in our child and adolescent population today. There is still significant debate if age at time of concussion diagnosis is associated with long term affects and time to recovery. Of the 725 patients who received a diagnosis of concussion at Children's of Alabama (COA) from 2018 to 2019, 350 patients were included for retrospective cohort review based on documented recovery data defined as follow up appointment PRN (as needed) or begin return to play protocol. 221 patients were lost to follow up while 7 were excluded for concomitant skull fracture. Recovery time, patient demographic data, symptoms severity score, and injury characteristics were then analyzed for each patient. Overall, the mean time of recovery after new diagnosis of any concussion was 87.2 days. The mean time to documented recovery in sports-related concussion was 82.6 days compared to 98.5 days in non-sports related concussion. Of note, both the 5-12 and 13-18 age groups had the same mean time to recovery at 87 days. Sports related concussion showed decreased mean time to recovery compared to non-sports related concussion. Also, age did not play a factor in time to recovery as there was no difference in the 2 age groups. This data, along with the NCAA-DOD Care Consortium showing repetitive head injury during early adolescence is unrelated to brain health as measured by specific outcome measures, has the potential to provide valuable information for future policy on child and adolescent sports.

A cross-sectional study to examine constraints to sport participation among ethnically diverse female adolescents from Ontario, Canada

Sport participation during adolescence is associated with good physical and mental health as well as social connectedness and greater well-being. Importantly, adolescence is a key developmental period when lifelong habit and behavioral patterns are shaped and when the benefits of sport are particularly beneficial to physical and psychological development. However, in Canada and internationally, adolescent females are consistency less active than males during adolescent years, are typically underrepresented in sports, and tend to drop out at disproportionate rates compared with their male peers. This cross-sectional study (2017-2019) aimed to examine associations between sport participation and individual, environmental, and task constraints for 825 ethnically diverse adolescent girls aged 13-19 years. Guided by Newell’s model on sport participation, analysis included a series of unadjusted and adjusted binary logistic regression models in order to examine individual, environmental, and task constraints as predictors of sport participation, as well as potential interactions between significant constraints and their association with sport participation. In the adjusted multivariate analyses, significant constraints to sport participation included weather (environmental), development and age (individual), and physical intensity (task), with no significant interactions. Overall, findings suggest that various constraints, particularly at the individual level (developmental) affect sport participation among diverse female adolescents. Future research should integrate mixed-methods to ensure a comprehensive examination of potential interactions of constraints. This can enhance understanding of complex and interacting factors, which can be integrated to lead to effective interventions, programs and policies that support adolescent female sport participation.

Putative Concussion Biomarkers Identified in Adolescent Male Athletes Using Targeted Plasma Proteomics.

Sport concussions can be difficult to diagnose and if missed, they can expose athletes to greater injury risk and long-lasting neurological disabilities. Discovery of objective biomarkers to aid concussion diagnosis is critical to protecting athlete brain health. To this end, we performed targeted proteomics on plasma obtained from adolescent athletes suffering a sports concussion. A total of 11 concussed male athletes were enrolled at our academic Sport Medicine Concussion Clinic, as well as 24 sex-, age- and activity-matched healthy control subjects. Clinical evaluation was performed and blood was drawn within 72 h of injury. Proximity extension assays were performed for 1,472 plasma proteins; a total of six proteins were considered significantly different between cohorts (P < 0.01; five proteins decreased and one protein increased). Receiver operating characteristic curves on the six individual protein biomarkers identified had areas-under-the-curves (AUCs) for concussion diagnosis ≥0.78; antioxidant 1 copper chaperone (ATOX1; AUC 0.81, P = 0.003), secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC; AUC 0.81, P = 0.004), cluster of differentiation 34 (CD34; AUC 0.79, P = 0.006), polyglutamine binding protein 1 (PQBP1; AUC 0.78, P = 0.008), insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-like 1 (IGFBPL1; AUC 0.78, P = 0.008) and cytosolic 5'-nucleotidase 3A (NT5C3A; AUC 0.78, P = 0.009). Combining three of the protein biomarkers (ATOX1, SPARC and NT5C3A), produced an AUC of 0.98 for concussion diagnoses (P < 0.001; 95% CI: 0.95, 1.00). Despite a paucity of studies on these three identified proteins, the available evidence points to their roles in modulating tissue inflammation and regulating integrity of the cerebral microvasculature. Taken together, our exploratory data suggest that three or less novel proteins, which are amenable to a point-of-care immunoassay, may be future candidate biomarkers for screening adolescent sport concussion. Validation with protein assays is required in larger cohorts.

Long-term effects of adolescent sport experience, DRD2 and COMT genes, and their interaction on sport participation in adulthood.

BackgroundThe present study investigated the joint impact of adolescent sport experience and dopamine‐related genes (i.e., DRD2 and COMT genes) on sport participation in adulthood.MethodsUsing the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) data, the hierarchical multivariable logistic regression models for predicting sport participation in wave 3 (around 20 years of age) and wave 4 (around 30 years of age) were conducted separately by gender (male and female) and gene (DRD2 and COMT genes).ResultsAdolescent sport experience significantly interacted with the number of DRD2 A1 alleles and COMT Met alleles in affecting wave 3 sport participation among male adults. The interaction between adolescent sport experience and DRD2 gene significantly affected wave 4 sport participation in opposite direction to that affected wave 3 sport participation among male participants. Among female participants, there were no significant interaction effects between dopamine‐related genes and adolescent sport experience on sport participation in both wave 3 and 4.ConclusionsSince adult sport participation is most likely to be influenced by the joint impact of environmental and genetic factors, it is important to consider gene‐by‐environment interactions when designing policies or programs to promote adult sport participation.

The relationship between disordered eating behaviors and injury rates in adolescent athletes.

To explore the relationship between disordered eating (DE) and significant sport injury in adolescent athletes. Responses to one item of the Disordered Eating Screen for Athletes and the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) items, administered to n=308 adolescent athletes, were analyzed with data on injury. Nonparametric statistics and multiple regression analysis were used to examine differences in DE rates amongst known injured adolescent athletes. The EAT-26 scores of injured females, median score of 9, were significantly higher than all other groupings with H(3)=17.26 p < .001, η2 =.047. Using regression analyses, injury significantly predicted a rise in EAT-26 score by five points in females, p=.01, R2 =.052. This evidence suggests a relationship between adolescent female sport injury and DE, but no relationship between adolescent male sport injury and DE. These results demonstrate a need to screen for DE in athletes. Given a positive screen, athletes should be educated on the risks associated with relative energy deficiency and potentially referred to a practitioner with knowledge of the associated complications.

Perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure in adolescent and adult sport

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether adolescent and adult athletes’ perceptions of interpersonal perfectionistic performance pressures from parents and coaches differ as a function of athlete age. DesignA cross-sectional repeated-measures design was employed. MethodA total of 1544 youth sport athletes (M age = 15.44 years; SD = 2.12) and 1706 adult sport athletes (M age = 20.80 years; SD = 2.09) provided self-report levels of perceived parental pressure (PPP) and perceived coach pressure (PCP) in sport. ResultsStatistically significant interaction effects (ps < .001) were obtained from two repeated-measures analyses of variance. Interaction effects indicated that PPP tended to be lower in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes, whereas PCP tended to be higher in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes. Significant main effects (ps < .001) also revealed that, regardless of age and whether athletes competed in youth sport or adult sport, athletes had a tendency to perceive more pressure from coaches than parents. ConclusionResults highlight the need to differentiate between parents and coaches as potential sources of interpersonal perfectionistic pressures in sport. Results also demonstrate that athletes’ perceptions of parent and coach pressure surrounding performance expectations and standards in sport can differ as a function of athlete age. Future research that examines perfectionism in sport from a developmental perspective is recommended.