Adjustment For Number Of Cigarettes Research Articles

Lung cancer risks in relation to vegetable and fruit consumption and smoking

In a case-control study on lung cancer, risk was analysed in relation to smoking habits and frequency of vegetable and fruit consumption. Lung cancer cases in West Sweden and population controls were interviewed using a questionnaire where the frequency of consumption of dietary items and smoking habits were assessed. The material presented comprises 177 female and 359 male confirmed cases of lung cancer and 916 population controls. There was a dose-response relationship in regard to the number of cigarettes smoked and the number of years smoked, the latter factor being more important. After adjustment for number of cigarettes smoked/day and number of years smoked, the risk for those who seldom consumed vegetables was about twice of that among those who consumed vegetables frequently, both among nonsmokers, smokers and former smokers. This risk increase in relation to vegetable consumption also was present for different smoking categories. A similar tendency, although less pronounced, was found for fruit consumption. The results demonstrate that dietary factors are related to the risk for lung cancer, although smoking is the dominant risk factor.

Patient Smoking Cessation Advice by Health Care Providers: The Role of Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and Health

We assessed differences by ethnicity in ever receiving advice from providers to quit smoking. We evaluated whether socioeconomic status and health status were moderators of the association. We used 2000 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey data, a population-based cross-sectional survey. After adjusting for complex survey design, 69% of the 14089 current smokers reported ever being advised to quit by a provider. Hispanics (50%) and African Americans (61%) reported receiving smoking counseling less frequently compared with Whites (72%, P<.01 for each). Ethnic minority status, lower education, and poorer health status remained significantly associated with lower rates of advice to quit after adjustment for number of cigarettes, time from last provider visit, income, comorbidities, health insurance, gender, and age. Smoking counseling differences between African Americans and Whites were greater among those with lower income and those without health insurance. Compared with Whites, differences for both Hispanics and African Americans were also greater among those with lower education. We found lower rates of smoking cessation advice among ethnic minorities. However, we also found complex interactions of ethnicity with socioeconomic factors.

Effects of Cruciferous Vegetable Consumption on Urinary Metabolites of the Tobacco-Specific Lung Carcinogen 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanone in Singapore Chinese

Abstract Vegetable consumption, including cruciferous vegetables, is protective against lung cancer, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cruciferous vegetable consumption on the metabolism of the tobacco-specific lung carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) in smokers. The study was carried out in Singapore Chinese, whose mean daily intake of cruciferous vegetables is three times greater than that of people in the United States. Eighty-four smokers provided urine samples and were interviewed about dietary habits using a structured questionnaire, which included questions on consumption of nine commonly consumed cruciferous vegetables. Samples of these vegetables obtained in Singapore markets at three different times of year were analyzed for glucosinolates. Urine was analyzed for metabolites of NNK: 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) and its glucuronides (NNAL-Glucs). Glucobrassicins, which release indole-3-carbinols on chewing, were the major glucosinolates in seven of the nine cruciferous vegetables, accounting for 70.0% to 93.2% of all glucosinolates in these vegetables. There was a significant correlation (P = 0.01) between increased consumption of glucobrassicins and decreased levels of NNAL in urine after adjustment for number of cigarettes smoked per day; similar trends were observed for NNAL-Glucs (P = 0.08) and NNAL plus NNAL-Glucs (P = 0.03). These results are consistent with those of previous studies, which demonstrate that indole-3-carbinol decreases levels of urinary NNAL probably by inducing hepatic metabolism of NNK. The results are discussed with respect to the known chemopreventive activity of indole-3-carbinol against lung tumorigenesis by NNK in mice and the effects of isothiocyanates, which are also formed on consumption of cruciferous vegetables, on NNK metabolism. The results of this study demonstrate the complexities in assessing effects of cruciferous vegetables on carcinogen metabolism.

Smoke intake among smokers is higher in lower socioeconomic groups

OBJECTIVETo analyse socioeconomic differences in serum thiocyanate concentrations among current smokers, and whether such differences persist after adjustment for the number of cigarettes smoked.SETTINGGeneral population of six districts of the...

Maternal Smoking, Alcohol Drinking, Caffeine Consumption, and Fetal Growth

In a prospective study of 712 pregnancies, we examined associations between maternal smoking, alcohol, and caffeine consumption and fetal growth. We interviewed patients at entry into care [12.9 +/- 4.3 (standard deviation) weeks], and at 28 and 36 weeks of gestation. We found the expected reductions in adjusted birthweight among women who smoked throughout pregnancy: 168 gm [95% confidence limits (CL) = -326, -10] for low/moderate amounts (< or = 15 cigarettes per day); 288 gm (95% CL = -491, -84) for heavy smoking (> 15 cigarettes per day). We also found a decrease in birthweight (-179 gm; 95% CL = -364, 7) among smokers who reported quiting early in pregnancy. First trimester alcohol consumption (average: four drinks per week) was associated with a 155-gm reduction in fetal growth (95% CL = -324, 15), even after adjustment for number of cigarettes smoked. The association, observed with all types of alcohol consumption, was stronger among smokers (-270 gm) but was also present in nonsmokers (-115 gm). Caffeine consumption showed no relation to fetal growth, even among heavy consumers, although they were relatively few. This study implicates heavy maternal smoking at any point in pregnancy, including solely in the early months, and possibly moderate alcohol drinking as causes of low birthweight.