Adjoining Forest Research Articles

Characteristics of sloth bear attacks and human casualties in North Bilaspur Forest Division, Chhattisgarh, India

Abstract Sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) are endemic to the Indian subcontinent and frequently come into conflict with humans. In the North Bilaspur Forest Division, a total of 137 attacks (resulting in 11 deaths) occurred between April 1998 and December 2000. Most (54%) incidents took place during the monsoon season. Attacks occurred (45%) early in the morning (0400–0800 hrs) more frequently than at other times; human activities at the time of attack were most frequently defecation (27%); locations of attacks were in kitchen gardens, crop fields, and in adjoining forests. A single bear was involved in a majority (56%) of incidents, but groups of 2 (20%) and 3 (21%) bears were also involved. Attacks were predominantly by a single bear (93%) and rarely by 2 (4%) or 3 bears. In most cases, the attacking bear ran away (55%) or was chased by other people (39%) or livestock. Most victims suffered multiple injuries (52%); single injuries on legs (25%), hand (12%), and head (8%) regions were also recorded.

A functional analysis of streamside habitat use by southern Appalachian salamanders: Implications for riparian forest management

The appropriate management of streamside forests and use of riparian strips is poorly resolved for many systems because of a lack of understanding of the extent to which riparian forests function as environmental buffers for aquatic species versus core (essential) habitat for semi-aquatic and terrestrial species. We studied streamside forests in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, USA, to help delineate their functional value for plethodontid salamanders. We established 30 m × 40 m plots at 17 sites (823–1716 m in elevation) in unmanaged forests with closed canopies. Plots contained a portion of a seep or first-order stream along one edge and typically extended 36–38 m into the adjoining forest. We examined use of stream and streamside habitats based on captures during area-constrained searches of cover objects. We observed 6423 plethodontid salamanders belonging to 7 terrestrial-breeding and 12 aquatic-breeding species. Terrestrial-breeders (primarily Plethodon spp.) comprised 37% of terrestrial specimens and were more abundant at higher elevations. Aquatic-breeders (primarily Desmognathus spp.) increased their proportionate use of terrestrial habitat, but declined in overall abundance with elevation. Catches of aquatic-breeders were greatest within 8 m of aquatic habitats (49% of total terrestrial catch of aquatic-breeders), particularly at low elevation sites. The terrestrial zone provided core habitat for one terrestrial-breeder ( D. wrighti) and six semi-aquatic species ( Desmognathus spp., Gyrinophilus porphyriticus and Eurycea wilderae) that were broadly distributed throughout plots, and acted as an aquatic buffer for four highly aquatic species ( Desmognathus spp.). The remaining species were terrestrial-breeders ( Plethodon spp.) that were evenly distributed across plots, suggesting that riparian strips would function as important source populations for recolonization following timbering on adjoining land. Because of the vulnerability of plethodontid salamanders to edge effects, effective management of southern Appalachian streamside habitats may require the addition of a terrestrial buffer to protect terrestrial core habitat that immediately adjoins streams and seeps.

RESPONSE OF MAJOR SOIL DECOMPOSERS TO LANDSLIDE DISTURBANCE IN A PUERTO RICAN RAINFOREST

To understand the relationship between soil biota and soil disturbance, we sampled an upper and a lower transect within each of two landslides and their adjoining forests, during both the wet and dry season in Puerto Rico. We found that the distribution of earthworms and soil microbes (e.g., fungi and bacteria)showed considerable spatial difference in these tropical landslides. We also found that endogenic earthworms (Pontoscolex corethrurus) occurred in all habitats (upper landslide 9.5 ± 4 No. m−2, lower landslide 43.8 ± 11 No. m−2, upper forest 35.7 ± 8 No. m−2, and lower forest 30.5 ± 14 No. m−2), but anecic earthworms (Amynthas rodericensis) were only found in the undisturbed forests (3.4 ±0.6 No. m−2). Total bacterial and fungal biomasses were significantly higher in the forests than in the landslides. Active bacterial and fungal biomasses were significantly higher in the lower landslide area than in the upper landslide area. For all sampled soil parameters there was a dominance of microsite variation within landslides compared with seasonal changes or differences between landslides and adjacent forests. Earthworm density and biomass correlated positively with leaf litter, light-carbon fraction, and total bacteria and negatively with fine roots, suggesting that earthworm abundance and composition in landslides were regulated by carbon pools. Earthworm abundance and community structure as well as active and total fungal and bacterial biomass may reflect soil disturbance history and soil development processes over geological time in the Puerto Rican rainforest.

IMPORTANCE OF RESERVES, FRAGMENTS, AND PARKS FOR BUTTERFLY CONSERVATION IN A TROPICAL URBAN LANDSCAPE

We assessed the effectiveness of forest reserves (i.e., protected old secondary and primary forests), fragments (i.e., scattered ruderal vegetation), and urban parks (i.e., artificially revegetated habitats) in conserving butterfly diversity in a highly urbanized tropical landscape (i.e., Singapore), by testing the hypothesis that forest reserves have the highest butterfly species richness among these habitats. We investigated which environ- mental factors (e.g., canopy cover) affect the distribution of butterflies across the habitats; and also tested the hypothesis that butterfly communities of different habitats have distinct ecological traits. Further, we examined the important determinants (e.g., area) of butterfly richness in urban parks, by testing the hypothesis that the number of potential larval host plant species occurring in the park is the best predictor of butterfly species richness. Rar- efaction analyses showed that forest reserves had the highest number of species, number of unique species, density of species, and community evenness among the habitats, implying that, in urban landscapes, the least human-disturbed habitats should be given the highest conservation priority. Forest reserves and urban parks adjoining forests collectively ac- counted for 91% of all butterfly species recorded in this study, suggesting that their pres- ervation will likely achieve maximum complementarity for effective butterfly conservation. Ordination analyses revealed that different butterfly species responded differently to en- vironmental factors (e.g., canopy cover), highlighting the importance of maintaining en- vironmental heterogeneity for the conservation of different butterfly species. Classification tree analysis indicated that butterfly communities of different habitats (e.g., forests, urban parks) have distinct ecological traits (e.g., host plant specificity), whereby urban avoiders were 89% likely to be forest dependent and 63% likely to be monophagous, while urban adapters were 87% likely to be cosmopolitan and 67% likely to be oligo- or polyphagous. Regression analyses showed that the number of potential larval host plant species and isolation from forests were important determinants of butterfly species richness in urban parks, indicating that urban parks should be revegetated with a diversity of potential larval host plants and should be situated as near as possible to a forest, in order to maximize their conservation value.

Habitat destruction and poaching threaten the Sumatran tiger in Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra

The Sumatran tiger, categorized as Critically Endangered on the 2002 IUCN Red List, is threatened by poaching for domestic and international markets, by prey depletion from human hunting and by habitat loss from illegal and commercial logging, oil palm production, pioneer farming, mining operations and forest fires. Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP) in west-central Sumatra still has large blocks of forest that support tiger populations. In this paper we present information on photo-trapping and tiger distribution in KSNP and adjoining forest. Tigers were found to be present in all habitat types across KSNP. The poaching pressures on tigers and their prey species were evaluated from confiscations of snare traps by Tiger Protection and Conservation Units (TPCU). Poaching pressures were found to be highest for muntjac, then sambar, tiger, and serow and mouse deer. We determined the effectiveness of TPCU patrol size from the number of arrests, and chainsaw and snare trap confiscations per patrol. The success of forest patrols increased with the number of TPCU staff per patrol. We looked at general law enforcement for KSNP, which appeared to be inadequate. To reduce the threat posed by poaching and illegal logging extra TPCU staff are required for patrols, and extra patrol units are required for the northern and southern sections of the Park. In KSNP it is necessary to monitor habitat loss, establish an unambiguous scheme to mitigate human-tiger conflict, and develop a photo-trapping programme to monitor the tiger population.

Cladistic, phenetic and biogeographical analysis of the flightless dung beetle genus, Gyronotus van Lansberge (Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae), in threatened eastern Afrotropical forests

By virtue of their low vagility, flightless insects are useful indicators of biogeographical history. Relationships of the flightless dung beetle genus, Gyronotus, are of particular interest due to its Gondwanaland ancestry, distinctive relict distribution along the south-eastern seaboard of Africa, and its restriction to forests which are seriously threatened by exploitation. Because of the limited number of diagnostic morphological characters, it was necessary to code morphometric data in order to conduct distance and cladistic parsimony analysis of interspecific relationships in Gyronotus. There was a good correlation between relationships indicated by the dendrograms/cladograms and those determined by an examination of aedeagus character states both of which indicate a disjunction between south and east African species and a broad separation between northern and southern South African species. Comparison of the bilaterally asymmetrical aedeagi of Gyronotus with the symmetrical aedeagi of the sister genus, Anachalcos Hope, suggests geographical polarization of character states from greater plesiomorphy in east African Gyronotus to greater apomorphy in South African species, particularly in the southernmost element in which the aedeagus shows extreme asymmetry. Furthermore, body shape follows a similar geographical gradient in that the three Gyronotus species of tropical east Africa are significantly more elongate than the three ovoid, lowland/afromontane species of South Africa. An examination of historical factors suggests that this spatially-restricted distribution is the relict of a very old tropical lowland pattern. In extant taxa, the phylogenetic polarization is towards one of five main centres of afrotropical forest biodiversity in the geologically old Eastern Arc and the adjoining lowland forest (Swahili centre of endemism). Survivors from old lineages may be one reason for such centres of high biodiversity.

La vegetación de las lajas en la región de Lomerío, Santa Cruz, Bolivia

Estudiamos la riqueza y composición de especies vegetales en tres afloramientos rocosos (lajas) en Lomerío, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, dentro de un bosque seco tropical. Determinamos la variación de la vegetación desde el centro hacia el borde de las lajas, además que caracterizamos algunas especies propias de este hábitat. La riqueza de especies varía entre lajas, pero, en forma conjunta esta riqueza puede ser mayor a otros tipos de bosque aledaños a las lajas. La riqueza de especies fue mayor en el borde que en el centro de las lajas. En el borde de las lajas, la riqueza de especies varia según la distancia al centro de las lajas; la mayor riqueza se encontró en los primeros 10 m del borde. En el centro de las lajas Deuterocohnia meziana Kuntze ex Mez fue la especie más dominante, mientras que las especies más abundantes fueron D. meziana y Monvillea kroenleinii R. Kiesling. En el borde de las lajas Anthurium plowmanii Croat, Pseudananas sagenarius (Arruda) Camargo, Urera baccifera L., Casearia gossypiosperma Briq., Aspidosperma rigidum Rusby y Cereus tacuaralensis Cárdenas fueron las especies más abundantes. De acuerdo a las clases diamétricas, se puede considerar que existe regeneración natural para las principales especies arbóreas. Las lajas son hábitats muy importantes que deben considerarse dentro del manejo forestal de bosques naturales adyacentes, puesto que constituyen lugares de alta diversidad y endemismo de plantas y animales y que son refugios y fuentes de alimentación de muchas especies de animales.

Biotic and abiotic characteristics of ecosystems on acid metalliferous mine tailings near Sudbury, Ontario

INCO Ltd., a large mining company near Sudbury, Ont., deposits vast amounts of tailings on its property. These tailings contain elevated levels of Cu, Ni, and sulphides, and to curtail dust and acid drainage, INCO has undertaken a long-term project to cover its tailings with vegetation. Yearly amelioration of fresh tailings with limestone and fertilizer, followed by seeding with various grasses and herbs, transplanted conifers, and the later colonization of volunteer species of plants from adjoining forests, has resulted in the formation of ecosystems of varying age and complexity. To assess the long-term effectiveness of INCO's vegetation techniques, we studied floral diversity, attributes of developing soils, and the accumulation of Cu and Ni in various plant species growing on tailings at different stages of development. Habitat disturbance by tailings deposition, and its subsequent floral recolonizaton, is an example of "anthropogenic succession." Tailings that do not receive amelioration in the form of lime, fertilizer, and seeding remain free of vegetation, other than sparce clumps of the metal-tolerant grass Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) Beauv. Once amelioration begins, various species of grasses and herbs are able to subsist and within 8 years volunteer species begin to colonize. Substrate pH of dried tailings is less than 4 while the pH in upper horizons ranges from 5 to 6, increasing as the sites become more florally diverse; however, pH at lower depths remains less than 4. Substrate organic content in upper horizons at restored sites ranges from 4.5 to 5.0%. Water-soluble concentrations of Cu and Ni in upper horizons ranges from 1 to 5 µg/g dry mass, and 0.5 to 6 µg/g dry mass, respectively, and both metals decrease with increasing floral diversity. Levels of Ni increase at lower depths indicating greater substrate mobility. Levels of Cu and Ni are higher in plants from tailings than in those from control sites; however, concentrations do not decrease in plants from older and more florally diverse tailings sites. Root tissues contain significantly higher concentrations of Cu and Ni than aerial tissues. Monitoring air with moss plates indicates that dispersal of airborne metallic dust remains a problem.Key words: mine tailings, Sudbury, anthropogenic succession, copper, nickel, acid, monitoring.

Biotic and abiotic characteristics of ecosystems on acid metalliferous mine tailings near Sudbury, Ontario

INCO Ltd., a large mining company near Sudbury, Ont., deposits vast amounts of tailings on its property. These tailings contain elevated levels of Cu, Ni, and sulphides, and to curtail dust and acid drainage, INCO has undertaken a long-term project to cover its tailings with vegetation. Yearly amelioration of fresh tailings with limestone and fertilizer, followed by seeding with various grasses and herbs, transplanted conifers, and the later colonization of volunteer species of plants from adjoining forests, has resulted in the formation of ecosystems of varying age and complexity. To assess the long-term effectiveness of INCO's vegetation techniques, we studied floral diversity, attributes of developing soils, and the accumulation of Cu and Ni in various plant species growing on tailings at different stages of development. Habitat disturbance by tailings deposition, and its subsequent floral recolonizaton, is an example of "anthropogenic succession." Tailings that do not receive amelioration in the form ...

Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia

This study documents the abundance, distribution and knowledge of medicinal plant species in a Ransa Dayak village and adjoining forest in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Over 250 medicinal plant species from 165 genera and 75 families are utilized by the local healer. Late successional, primary and river bench forests contained the highest diversity of locally-utilized medicinal species and the greatest number of species restricted to a single forest type for which alternative species or remedies were unavailable. Epiphytes and trees restricted to primary forests are particularly important sources for plants used to treat unusual ailments. A 100% survey of village residents 15 years of age and older (N = 32) revealed that people older than 25 years of age, and older females in particular, possessed greater knowledge of medicinal plants and their uses than younger people and males. All residents, except the male healer, were more knowledgeable about medicinal plants found in early successional forests than those of primary forests. Commercial logging and the loss of traditional knowledge through acculturation pose twin challenges to the persistence of traditional medicinal plant use in this Ransa village and throughout much of Kalimantan.

The effect of edges on the distribution of arboreal marsupials in the ash forests of the Victorian Central Highlands

Summary Effects of sharp edges induced by timber harvesting and diffuse edges induced by wildfire on the distribution of arboreal marsupials, were investigated by spotlight surveys in the ash forests of the Victorian Central Highlands. Edges were examined between three age-classes of forest (165+, 55-year- old fire regrowth and logging regrowth 5–20 years after loggging), with sites at 200m intervals up to 900m from the edge. The edge itself appeared to have little effect on the distribution and abundance of the arboreal marsupials recorded in this study; the distribution of species appeared related to features of the adjoining forest patches of differing age including their structure, and the distribution of food resources and hollow-bearing trees. Greater Gliders occured in all age- classes but were most common in old forest with numbers declining across edges and into 55-year-old fire regrowth. This trend was correlated with the distribution of hollow- bearing trees, particularly live hollow-bearing tr...

Some Investigations on the Spread of Ticks and Their Infection with the Agent of Lyme Disease in Lithuania, 1991–1994

Summary The forests in Lithuania account for 30,2 % of the total stock of land. In the towns there are lots of parks and other recreation zones adjoining forests. Of Ixodes ricinus and Dermocentor pictus species found in Lithuania, Ixodes ricinus is dominating. The distribution area of this species takes all the territory of Lithuania. Tick abundance is annually observed in the forests of towns and districts during spring activity of ticks, as well as in nine stationary observation stations from April to October. Tick abundance in Lithuania is constantly increasing. In 1991–1994 a total of 1113 ticks were examined for the infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, infected ticks being assessed to make 8,89 %.

Use of heathland and adjoining forest by honeyeaters: Results of a radiotracking study

Abstract New Holland (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae) and White‐cheeked (Phylidonyris nigra) Honeyeaters that are resident in heathland during February and March, when there is negligible nectar production in that habitat, are expected to forage for nectar at that time in the adjacent open forest habitat. As nectar production in the heathland increases from then to June, while that in the forest decreases, the proportion of time spent by these birds in the forest should decrease over the same period. Radiotracking revealed that during February the residents did, as expected, spend time feeding on nectar in the forest and more time was spent in the forest in February than in April or June. However, the residents spent time away from the heathland throughout the year and spent more time away in June than in April. The resident honeyeaters spent about 80% of their time on our heathland grid overall. Radiotracking also indicated that there was no sharp distinction in behaviour between residents and other birds because birds that had been resident in the past but were not considered to be so at the time (absent residents), birds that would later be considered resident (future residents) and some birds that were never resident, all spent about half their time on the grid. The area that included 90% of heathland locations, estimated by radiotracking, for P. novaehollandiae and P. nigra averaged 0.48 ha per bird.

Avian Nest Predation in Clearcuts, Forests, and Edges in a Forest-Dominated Landscape

Numerous nest predation studies have been conducted, but few have been representative of forest dominated landscapes or early successional forest stages. Thus, we examined the rates of predation on artificial ground nests in a forested landscape in both clearcuts and the adjoining forest. We placed artificial nests containing japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) eggs every 15 m on transects perpendicular to clearcut-forest edges. Nests were exposed for 7 days in early july 1989 and for 14 days each in june and july 1990. We placed artificial shrub nests (1-2 m above ground) along the forest edge and in the forest interior in july 1990. Predation rates were higher (P < 0,001) for forest nests than for clearcut nests. Neither clearcut size nor forest tract size exhibited a consistent relationship with predation intensity

Small Mammals in Plant Cover Types on an Electric Transmission Right-Of-Way

A study of the abundance and diversity of small mammals in common plant cover types was made on an electric transmission right-of-way (ROW) in central Pennsylvania in 1989 and 1990. Two mechanical and five herbicide treatments had been applied in 1987 on four replicated ROW areas. A diverse and abundant population was found on the ROW, which included eight mammalian species with an average total density of 71.0 individuals per acre. Population density of all species combined in the six common ROW cover types ranged from 32.7 in the fescue grass type to 100.4 in the witchhazel type. Density of small mammals in the adjoining forest averaged 101.6 per acre, with only two species present.

Small Mammal Distributions in Riparian and Adjacent Habitats of Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming

Riparian ecosystems are among the most productive biological systems providing food, water, shade, and cover for wildlife (Thomas et al. 1979a). Furthermore, they may display a greater diversity of plant and animal species and vegetative structure than adjacent ecosystems (USDI 1986). Thomas et al. (1979a) provide a descriptive definition which characterizes riparian ecosystems by the presence of trees, shrubs, or herbaceous vegetation that require free or unbound water, or conditions that are more moist than those of the surrounding areas. They suggest that more wildlife species depend entirely on or spend disproportionally more time in riparian habitat than any other. Although the importance of riparian vegetation to wildlife has been apparent since the 1970's, its overall importance to vertebrate species has not been widely studied, especially in the western United States (Patton 1977). Elsewhere, there is a paucity of information on the ecological role of small mammals in riparian areas. Because small vertebrate species may serve as an especially important link in the food chain of threatened, endangered, or reintroduced species, and because small mammal species seem to be compacted in environmentally diverse areas, analysis of riparian vertebrate communities should provide important insights in mechanisms of habitat subdivision and utilization. Clearly, riparian areas contain a greater variety of species than adjoining forest or upslope habitats (Cross 1985). The effect of patch shape on the number of species occupying riparian habitats also has received limited attention (Patton 1975). Because riparian habitat consists of a narrow patch, the elongated shape of riparian areas produces a low interior-to­high-edge ratio which may facilitate or enhance ecological processes, especially the production and dispersal of small mammals. Unfortunately, no documentation exists about patterns of mammalian movement along stream corridors (Forman and Godron 1986). Thus, the importance of the relative use of the edge, riparian, and upland areas by small mammals needs to be investigated, especially in forested mountain land, where riparian areas tend to have smaller areal extent and economic value than upslope vegetation (Swanson et al. 1982). The principle objective of our study was to determine if consistent environmental and landscape features could be found in western riparian, edge, and upland communities, and if these features affected residency of small mammals in Grand Teton National Park. Three independent study sites were studied from June, 1991 through October, 1991 in preparation for a proposed long-term analysis of the role of riparian areas in production of small mammals.

Monsoon Forests in North-Western Australia. II. Forest-Savanna Transitions

Presence-absence data for tree species in over 1000 quadrats, 10 ° 20m, on 144 transects were analysed by the divisive classificatory program TWINSPAN in order to define wet or dry monsoon forest, ecotone and savanna assemblages. A sorted table revealed that there was continuous floristic variation among these six vegetation types, although the abundance of tree species varied highly significantly between assemblages. Both wet and dry monsoon forests have higher stem densities, greater basal area, more tree species, higher litter cover and lower grass cover than surrounding savannas. Wet monsoon forest soils have significantly more moisture than surrounding savanna, but on the dry monsoon forest-savanna boundary there is no significant difference in soil moisture. Both wet and dry monsoon forest soils are more fertile than those in surrounding savannas, although there is considerable variation in the concentration of nutrients within and between the two forest formations. The greater fertility of the forest probably reflects superior nutrient accretion compared with the savanna, rather than indicating that monsoon forests are restricted to inherently fertile sites. Half the wet monsoon forest boundaries sampled had ecotonal quadrats separating forest from savanna, while only 18% of the dry monsoon forest boundaries had such structurally and floristically intermediate quadrats. A limited number of tree species was found to dominate both wet and dry forest ecotones. Wet forest ecotones are overall environmentally more similar to the surrounding savanna than the adjoining forests. Dry forest ecotones are environmentally intermediate between the dry forest and savanna. Both wet and dry forests have less fire damage than surrounding savannas. In contrast to the edaphic control of most wet monsoon forests, dry forests are typically restricted to fire protected niches. The distribution of both wet and dry forest, ecotone and savanna on boundaries with no edaphic or topographic discontinuities is thought to reflect a dynamic relationship between these assemblages.

Effects of a Special Technique for Right-Of-Way Maintenance on Deer Habitat

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginiana) habitat and use were evaluated on an electric transmission right-ofway (ROW) before and after 5 different herbicide treatments and handcutting were applied using a special technique. Eval uations also were made in the adjoining forest. The technique used for all treatments provided for division of the ROW into a central wire zone and two border zones. Selective treatment of only tall-growing trees was carried out on the border zones; as contrasted with complete treatment of all trees and tall shrubs in the wire zone. In addition, a special broadcast application was given to the wire zone in the case of the herbicide pellet treatment to produce a herb-grass plant cover. Although appreciable changes occurred in specific deer habitat factors, decreases in certain factors were offset by increases in other factors. As a consequence, total habitat values remained high. Deer presence increased on all ROW treatment areas from 1982 to 1984. Deer browsed both woody and herbaceous vegetation comparably on the ROW and in the forest. The utilization factor, percent cover x percent browsed, was higher for woody vegetation in the forest and for herbaceous vegetation on the ROW.

The Bird Population of a Transmission Right-Of-Way Maintained by Herbicides

A census was made of the bird population on an electric transmission right-of-way (ROW) and the adjoining forest in central Pennsylvania in July, 1982. The ROW had been maintained for 30 years by herbicide sprays with handcutting as a control. A large and diverse bird population of 31 species, which averaged 6.4 birds per hectare per census day, had developed on the ROW. The common species were typical of shrublands and open areas. In the adjoining forest, an average of 3.4 birds per hectare were counted per day; and the population contained 27 species. There was no significant difference at the 0.05 level between the number of birds on handcut- and herbicide-maintained ROW areas; the number of birds was significantly less in the forest than on the ROW. Immature birds made up 8% of the total ROW count.

The larger mammals and their endangered habitats in the silent valley forests of South India

A study has been made of the population ecology of large mammals of Silent Valley and contiguous forests of South India. The vegetation of Silent Valley and Attapadi forests are mostly west coast tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen types. In the adjoining forests Nilambur and Nilgiris, the vegetation is southern secondary moist mixed deciduous and southern montane wet temperature, respectively. Silent Valley and its contiguous forests harbour 25 species of large and medium-sized mammals, including two endangered endemic species and many others that are endangered and protected. The lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr and tiger were sighted in and around the submergence area of the proposed Silent Valley hydroelectric project. If constructed, the impact of this dam on the populations of larger mammals in the area would be severe.