Adequate Daily Dietary Intake Research Articles

Lack of toxicity of chromium chloride and chromium picolinate in rats.

To evaluate the safety of chromium (Cr) as a nutrient supplement. Several recent studies have reported beneficial effects of supplemental Cr at levels higher than the upper limit of the suggested intake for Cr. Trivalent Cr is considered relatively nontoxic but some recent unconfirmed studies have questioned its toxicity. We evaluated the toxicity of Cr chloride and a more bioavailable form of trivalent Cr, Cr tripicolinate.Harlan Sprague Dawley rats (4 weeks of age) were fed a stock diet to which was added 0, 5, 25, 50 or 100 mg of Cr per kg of diet as chloride or picolinate. Fasting blood samples were taken at 11 and 17 weeks and animals sacrificed at 24 weeks of age. Lack of toxicity was demonstrated by blood and histological measurements. Chromium incorporation into tissues was determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption.There were no statistically significant differences in body weight, organ weights or blood variables among all the groups tested at 11, 17 and 24 weeks. Blood variables measured were glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, blood urea nitrogen, lactic acid dehydrogenase, transaminases, total protein and creatinine. Histological evaluation of the liver and kidney of control and animals fed 100 mg/kg Cr as Cr chloride or picolinate also did not show any detectable differences. Liver and kidney Cr concentrations increased linearly for both the Cr chloride and picolinate fed animals.These data demonstrate a lack of toxicity of trivalent Cr, at levels that are on a per kg basis, several thousand times the upper limit of the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake for humans. Animals consuming the picolinate supplemented diets had several-fold higher Cr concentrations in both the liver and kidney than those fed Cr chloride.

Deliberations and Evaluations of the Approaches, Endpoints and Paradigms for Manganese and Molybdenum Dietary Recommendations

The background of the current dietary recommendations for manganese and molybdenum are described. This article reviews how the previous and current estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes (ESADDI) were set, shortcomings in the methods used, concerns about the current recommendations, and brief summaries of new research reports. New approaches, endpoints and paradigms to use for the development of useful recommendations are given.

How Should Dietary Guidance Be Given for Mineral Elements with Beneficial Actions or Suspected of Being Essential?

The term ultratrace elements, often used to indicate elements with an established, estimated or suspected requirement generally indicated by µg/d, could be applied to at least 20 elements. The quality of experimental evidence for nutritional essentiality varies widely for the ultratrace elements. Thus, although differing dietary guidance is appropriate for these elements, most need increased attention in future editions of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for the following reasons: (1) Increased interest in these elements by the public has been stimulated by the mass media; thus, responsible information about the usefulness of the ultratrace elements for health and well being is needed. (2) Risk assessments and toxicological standards are influenced by the RDAs. Authorative advice is required to prevent standards that obstruct the achievement of beneficial intakes of ultratrace elements. (3) An emerging new paradigm is that the determination of nutritional requirements should include consideration of the total health effects of nutrients, not just their roles in preventing deficiency pathology; some of the ultratrace elements have identified health benefits. Six ultratrace elements, iodine, selenium, manganese, molybdenum, chromium and boron (and cobalt as vitamin B12), merit specific RDAs. The term “estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes (ESADDI)” should not be used for any of the other ultratrace elements because of the misleading words “adequate” and “safe.” “Apparent beneficial intake (ABI)” seems more appropriate for the elements with beneficial, if not essential, actions that can be extrapolated from animals to humans; these elements include arsenic, fluoride, lithium, nickel, silicon and vanadium. The evidence is too limited or controversial for the remaining ultratrace elements to even provide an ambiguous ABI. The amount found in a healthful diet probably should be a value provided for an appropriate intake for aluminum, bromide, cadmium, germanium, lead, rubidium, and tin.

Deliberations and Evaluations of the Approaches, Endpoints and Paradigms for Boron, Chromium and Fluoride Dietary Recommendations

The 10th edition (1989) of the Recommended Dietary Allowances provided estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes (ESADDI) for chromium and fluoride and summarized the substantial evidence for boron essentiality in animals. New endpoints, approaches and paradigms to use to formulate dietary guidance for these elements were reviewed by a discussion group that met as part of a national workshop. Deliberations of the group are summarized to facilitate future discussions on dietary guidance for these elements. The category, “provisional RDA” was recommended to replace the current ESADDI category because of the ambiguities associated with the ESADDI. A provisional RDA would be defined for a dietary substance that meets one of two sets of criteria: class 1, clear evidence of essentiality but uncertain or limited quantitative data or endpoints to define dietary requirements; and class 2, strong evidence of essentiality, and clear nutritional benefit based on reasonably certain quantitative data, but lack of clear information on function or endpoints to use for deficiency dietary requirements. A summary of background information and possible approaches for assigning provisional RDAs for boron, chromium and fluoride is presented.

Deliberations and Evaluations of the Approaches, Endpoints and Paradigms for Dietary Recommendations about Copper

Important aspects of copper nutrition were collected from all 10 editions of the Recommended Dietary Allowance along with the history of the paradigm concept according to Thomas Kuhn. Important anomalies in copper nutrition, such as the easy accessibility to diets containing considerably less copper than the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake are reviewed. Important experiments with animals are compared with copper depletion experiments with humans. Data support the belief that people respond to diets low in copper similarly to animals and that measurement of copper in blood plasma generally is useless in assessing nutritional status. If common diets low in copper are consumed regularly during pregnancy, maternal stores of copper will be depleted. Although there is some evidence of lower copper in heart and major blood vessels in elderly people, it is premature to suggest different intakes for adults of different ages. Although consideration of cardiovascular data in establishing an RDA for copper may seem to be a new paradigm, considerations of general health and well being have long contributed to establishing RDAs. Dietary copper can be increased by adhering to the advice symbolized by the food pyramid.

Chromium supplementation and resistance training: effects on body composition, strength, and trace element status of men

The effects of 8 wk of daily chromium supplementation (3.3-3.5 mumol as chromium chloride or chromium picolinate) or placebo (0.1 mumol Cr) and weight training were examined in 36 men in a double-blind design. Strength, mesomorphy, fat-free mass, and muscle mass increased with resistance training independently of chromium supplementation (P < 0.0001). Protein, magnesium, zinc, copper, and iron intakes equalled or exceeded the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) or estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake (ESADDI) during training and did not change significantly from pretraining intakes (P > 0.05). Chromium supplementation increased the serum chromium concentration and urinary chromium excretion without a difference as a result of the chemical form of chromium (P < 0.05). Resistance training was associated with a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in serum ferritin, total-iron-binding capacity, transferrin saturation, the ratio of enzymatic to immunoreactive ceruloplasmin, and plasma copper, independently of chromium supplementation. However, transferrin saturation was decreased more with chromium picolinate supplementation (24%) than with chromium chloride or placebo (10-13%). Compared with pretraining values, urinary magnesium excretion increased (P < 0.05) and urinary zinc output tended to decrease during the first 4 wk of resistance training and then returned to baseline values for the final 4 wk, which suggests an adaptation in mineral excretion in response to weight training. These findings suggest that routine chromium supplementation has no beneficial effects on body- composition change or strength gain in men. Whether chromium supplementation of individuals with diminished chromium nutriture facilitates propitious changes in body structure and function remains to be determined.

Daily dietary chromium intake in Belgium, using duplicate portion sampling.

Daily dietary chromium intake in Belgium has been evaluated by sampling duplicate portions of food, heating them at an acidic pH in a microwave oven and then quantifying the chromium by atomic absorption spectrometry. The mean intake value (53 +/- 31 micrograms/day) is similar to levels found for most other countries and is situated at the lower end of the recommended range for a safe and adequate daily dietary intake.

Kinetic Model of Molybdenum Metabolism Develped from Dual Stable Isotope Excretion in Men Consuming a Low Molybdenum Diet

The aim of this study was to develop a compartmental model of molybdenum metabolism based on stable isotope excretion patterns. Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential trace element in humans, with an estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake (ESADDI) of 75–750 µg Mo/d. Four adult men were fed low molybdenum diets, 22 µg Mo/d, for a period of 102 d. 97Mo and 100Mo stable isotopes, in intravenous and oral doses, respectively, were administered at selected intervals. The resulting 6-d cumulative urinary and fecal isotope excreation data were used to model molybdenum metabolism using SAAM/CONSAM software, A kinetic model, including gastrointestinal (GI), plasma, slow-turnover tissue and fast-turnover tissue compartments, accurately simulated the observed pattern of urinary and fecal excretion for both stable isotopes in all four subjects. Residence time for molybdenum in the GI tract was estimated at 1.7 ± 0.4 d. Predicted residence time for plasma molybdenum was 22 ± 4 min, whereas slow-turnover tissue (possibly hepatic) retention averaged 58 ± 16 d. The model thus permitted estimation of kinetic parameters for molybdenum metabolism in tissues not readily accessible of measurable in humans.

Serum estradiol, hematological parameters, and urinary electrolytes excretion in oligomenorrheic and eumenorrheic athletes on self‐selected diets

The objectives of this study were to determine the serum estrogen, percent body fat, dietary intake, urinary electrolyte excretion, and hematological status of female athletes experiencing irregular and regular menstrual cycles. A 3‐day dietary record was collected from seven oligomenorrheic and 10 eumenorrheic female athletes. Fasting blood samples were collected to determine serum estradiol, iron, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cell levels. There was no signiflcant difference between the groups in either the serum estradiol, iron, albumin, hemoglobin, or hematocrit levels. Most subjects in both groups consumed less than 50% of the recommended daily allowance for iron, zinc, vitamin B6, and estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake for copper. The results show significant lower body fat in the oligomenorrheic group and a low nutrient intake in both groups. Strenuous exercise plus an inadequate nutrient intake could pose long‐term nutritional problems for athletes.

Copper intakes and consumption patterns of chocolate foods as sources of copper for individuals in the 1987–1988 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey

Objectives of this study were to estimate mean daily intake of copper for eight age subgroups of each gender, to examine consumption patterns of chocolate foods in the U.S., and to determine amounts of copper provided by the consumption of chocolate foods by analyzing 3-day dietary records reported by individuals in the 1987–1988 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey. Mean daily copper intake for all age/gender groups of infants and children reached the lower value of the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake (ESADDI) range. However, the mean daily copper intake of all age/gender groups of adolescents and adults was below the ESADDI of 1.5 to 3.0 mg/day. Chocolate cookies were most frequently consumed among chocolate foods. Dark chocolate/candy made the highest contribution to mean daily copper intake (22.1% of ESADDI). Other major contributors to the daily copper intake were chocolate pie (17.8% of ESADDI), chocolate milk (13.3%), chocolate topping/syrup/icing (12.0%), milk chocolate/candy (11.3%), and chocolate cake/muffin (11.2%). The total dietary copper intake by males and females was positively associated (p<0.001) with the consumption of chocolate foods. These results indicate that the mean daily copper intake of American adolescents and adults is less than recommended level and chocolate foods can be a good source of American dietary copper.

Mineral requirements of elderly people

Poor mineral nutrition reported in elderly people is attributed in large part to low dietary intake. Evaluation of the adequacy of mineral nutriture is limited for several minerals because of inadequate methods for assessing mineral status. In addition, there is a general lack of information about mineral nutriture and metabolism in very old people (> 85 y). Given these reservations, the 1989 recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for iron, zinc, and selenium appears adequate for elderly people, as does the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake (ESADDI) recommendation for copper. In contrast, the current RDAs for calcium and magnesium and the ESADDI for chromium need careful reevaluation. Current recommendations for calcium may be too low, whereas those for magnesium and chromium may be higher than necessary. For phosphorus, iodine, manganese, fluoride, and molybdenum the available data are insufficient to make a critical judgment about the appropriateness of the dietary recommendations for elderly people.

Nutrient intakes of adolescents with phenylketonuria and infants and children with maple syrup urine disease on semisynthetic diets.

Adequacy of nutrient intakes of adolescents with and without phenylketonuria (PKU) and infants and children with and without maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) were assessed using 3-day diet records sorted by disease and by age of the subject. Mean intakes of all nutrients were greater than two-thirds of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) or Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes (ESADDI) for all adolescents studied, with the exception of selenium (Se) in PKU adolescents, which averaged 27.8 micrograms. For adolescents with PKU, > 50% of the RDA or ESADDI for all nutrients was provided by elemental or modified protein hydrolysate medical foods, except for vitamin A in children aged 11-15 years and Se in children 11-18 years. Mean nutrient intakes of all infants and children were greater than two-thirds of the RDA or ESADDI for all nutrients except Se in MSUD children aged 1-11 years, where intakes ranged from 6.4 to 13.2 micrograms (21-66% of the RDA). The medical foods provided for most of the RDA and ESADDI recommendations, with the exception of Se in MSUD children.

Secretory Patterns of Biotin in Human Milk ,

The current recommendation for safe and adequate daily dietary intake of biotin for infants is based on measurements of biotin concentration in human milk and calculations of biotin intake that tacitly assume that biotin content of human milk is reasonably uniform for a given subject. This assumption of uniformity was tested by examining the effects of several factors on the biotin concentration. The degree of breast emptying had little effect on biotin concentration. However, in three of five individuals studied, the biotin concentration varied significantly over 24 h. In two of five subjects, there was a consistent difference between breasts of ∼16%. In the first 18 d postpartum, the milk concentration of biotin increased steadily in four of the eight individuals studied, remained low in two and increased erratically in two. Rather than reaching a stable plateau in mature milk, biotin concentration varied substantially in most of the subjects. These observations provide evidence that an adequate scheme for estimating total biotin intake of the breastfed infant will require sampling from both breasts frequently over the 24-h cycle and frequently as a function of time postpartum.

Intake, serum concentrations, and urinary excretion of manganese by adult males

Nutritional status of manganese in 10 adult males was monitored through a 47-d period by measuring manganese in serum and urine and by chemically analyzing duplicate portions of all foods and beverages consumed on 3 d, with computer analysis of dietary records for 10 additional days. Subjects consumed 0.52-5.33 mg Mn/d; 50% of the time they consumed less than the 1980 Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake for manganese. Subjects on average (+/- SEM) excreted 7.0 +/- 0.5 nmol Mn/g creatinine; their average serum manganese concentration was 19.3 +/- 1 nmol/L. These potential indices of manganese exposure were not correlated with the subjects' dietary intakes of manganese or other minerals. However, serum manganese concentrations tended to be elevated (p less than 0.064) in five subjects who consumed 15 mg chelated Mn/d for 7 d.

Nutritional elements in U.S. diets: Results from the Total Diet Study, 1982 to 1986

Through the Food and Drug Administration's Total Diet Study, the levels of 11 nutritional elements (sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, selenium, and iodine) in the diets of eight age-sex groups were determined for the 4 years between 1982 and 1986. The 234 Total Diet Study foods, which are representative of the U.S. food supply, were purchased, prepared for consumption, and analyzed for the elements four times each year. The results were combined with national food consumption data to estimate intakes for 6- to 11-month-old infants, 2-year-old children, 14- to 16-year-old boys and girls, 25- to 30-year-old men and women, and 60- to 65-year-old men and women. Six elements (calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, and manganese) were low (less than 80% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance or below the low end of the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake range) for three or more of the age-sex groups. Six elements were of concern for teenage girls and adult women, five for older women, three for 2-year-old children, two for teenage boys and older men, and only one for infants and adult men. Sodium levels (which did not include discretionary salt) were elevated for 2-year-old children and teenage boys, and iodine was elevated for all age-sex groups. A significant trend was noted only for iodine, the intake of which decreased during the 4-year period.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Essential Elements in Tomatoes and Fresh and Canned Tomato Juice

ABSTRACTSixteen essential elements along with cadmium and lead were determined in tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) and fresh and canned tomato juice by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Samples were taken during the canning process to determine where changes in element content occurred. The concentration of each sample was compared statistically to other samples taken at different stages of the process. RDAs and estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake values as well as percent retention values were calculated. Retention of all elements, except chloride and sodium, ranged from 91–160%.

Mineral content of foods and total diets: The Selected Minerals in Foods Survey, 1982 to 1984

The 234 foods of the FDA's Total Diet Study were collected four times per year form mid-1982 to mid-1984 and analyzed for 11 essential minerals. Daily intakes of the minerals were estimated for eight age-sex groups of the U.S. population. Levels of calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, and manganese were low (less than 80% of the RDA or below the low end of the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake range) for some or all age-sex groups. Those most at risk of low intakes were young children, teenage girls, adult women, and older women. Non-discretionary sodium intake exceeded the upper Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake range for two age-sex groups, and iodine was considerably above the RDA for all age-sex groups. Levels of potassium, phosphorus, and selenium were adequate for all groups.

Trace elements in nutrition of the elderly. 2. SADDIs for copper, manganese, selenium, chromium, molybdenum, and fluoride.

PreviewTrace element nutriture, especially in the elderly, is ill-defined. The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council has established a recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for only 3 of the 16 trace elements considered to be of biologic importance to humans. These elements—iron, zinc, and iodine—were discussed in part 1 of this article (page 231), together with the functions of trace elements in human metabolism and the factors that affect trace mineral requirements of the elderly. Part 2 discusses the trace elements for which the board to date has set only tentative levels, designated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes (SADDIs).

Essential Elements and Cadmium and Lead in Fresh and Canned Peas (Pisum sativum L.)

ABSTRACTSixteen essential elements along with cadmium and lead were determined in fresh and canned peas (Pisum sarivum L.). Samples were taken during the canning process to determine where changes in element content occurred. The concentration of each sample was compared statistically to other samples taken at different stages of the process. Canned peas contained significantly lower concentrations of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, silicon, and zinc than fresh peas. As sodium chloride was added during the canning process, higher concentrations of chloride and sodium were found in the canned product. A 100g serving of drained canned peas supplied less than 11% of the RDAs or of the estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intakes except for chloride and sodium. Retention of all elements, except chloride and sodium, ranged from 24–86%.

Essential Elements, Cadmium and Lead in Fresh and Canned Corn (Zea mays L.)

ABSTRACTThe content of 16 essential elements and cadmium and lead was determined in fresh and canned corn (Zea mays L.) by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Samples were taken during the canning process to determine where changes in element content occurred. The content of each sample was compared statistically to other samples taken within the process. RDAs and estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake values as well as percent retention values were calculated. Element retention, excluding chloride and sodium, ranged from 43% to 98%.