Adequate Nutrient Intake Research Articles

Strategies to Reduce Stunting Rates Through Increased Awareness and Collective Action in the Community of Setanggor Village East Lombok Regency

Setanggor is one of the villages located in the Sukamulia District, East Lombok Regency, West Nusa Tenggara Province. The community in this village, 80% of whom work as farmers, spends a lot of time in the fields. However, the prevalence of stunting in this village is still relatively high. Therefore, the goal of the Community Service Program (KKN) by the Mataram University's PMD (Community Development Program) during the period of December 2023 to February 2024 is to assist the community in addressing stunting through increasing awareness and collective action in stunting prevention. The methods used include socialization, distribution of nutritious food, and Posyandu (Integrated Health Service Post). The results obtained from these activities include increased awareness and knowledge among the villagers regarding the importance of maintaining a healthy and clean lifestyle, as well as the need for adequate intake of nutritious food to prevent malnutrition in children

Maternal diet quality with child allergic and respiratory multimorbidity in the Elfe birth cohort

Evidence linking maternal diet during pregnancy to allergic or respiratory diseases in children remains sparse, and outcomes were mainly studied separately. We aim to investigate these associations by considering clusters of allergic and respiratory multimorbidity among 9679 mother–child pairs from the Elfe birth cohort. Maternal diet quality was evaluated using a food-based score (Diet Quality score), a nutrient-based score (PANDiet score) and food group intakes. Adjusted multinomial logistic regressions on allergic and respiratory multimorbidity clusters up to 5.5 years were performed. Child allergic and respiratory diseases were described through five clusters: “asymptomatic” (43%, reference), “early wheeze without asthma” (34%), “asthma only” (7%), “allergies without asthma” (7%), “multi-allergic” (9%). A higher PANDiet score and an increased legume consumption were associated with a reduced risk of belonging to the “early wheeze without asthma” cluster. A U-shaped relationship was observed between maternal fish consumption and the “allergies without asthma” cluster. To conclude, adequate nutrient intake during pregnancy was weakly associated with a lower risk of “early wheeze without asthma” in children. No association was found with food groups, considered jointly or separately, except for legumes and fish, suggesting that maternal adherence to nutritional guidelines might be beneficial for allergic and respiratory diseases prevention.

Dietary Patterns of Pregnant Women and Their Association with Diet Quality Measures: A Comparative Analysis.

Healthy dietary patterns during pregnancy are crucial for ensuring maternal and foetal health outcomes. Numerous methodologies exist for assessing the diet of pregnant women, including dietary patterns and various appraisal tools of diet quality. This study aimed to assess the dietary patterns and diet quality of pregnant women and to investigate the relationship between dietary patterns, diet quality estimators, and the adequacy of nutrient intake. EPIC FFQ was applied to a sample of 251 pregnant women, and questionnaires were interpreted with the FETA program. Dietary patterns were then determined by means of principal component analysis. Our results showed a substantial association between dietary patterns and total diet quality, as measured by the Diet Quality Index for Pregnancy (DQI-Pc), PURE Healthy Diet Score, and FIGO Diet Quality Score. We also found correlations between certain dietary patterns and particular nutrient intakes recommended by the European Food Safety Authority during pregnancy. The most deficient intake was registered for iron (86.1%), zinc (87.3%) and magnesium (79.3%), posing a threat to normal bone development, anaemia prophylaxis, and immune status. These results highlight the importance of assessing and understanding eating habits during pregnancy in order to achieve optimal outcomes for both the mother and the foetus.

Relationship between Frequency of Meals Comprising Staple Grain, Main, and Side Dishes and Nutritional Adequacy in Japanese Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Meals comprising a staple grain, a main, and side dishes (SMS meals) promote good dietary intake, yet limited studies have examined their multifactorial relationship with dietary intake. We investigated how demographic characteristics, lifestyle, and dietary habits affect the relationship between SMS meal frequency and nutrient intake adequacy. This cross-sectional study analyzed survey data from 331 Japanese adults (208 men and 123 women) aged 30-69 years in February 2019. SMS meal frequency was evaluated according to respondents' answers to how many days a week they consumed ≥2 daily SMS meals. Dietary intake was evaluated using the brief self-administered diet history questionnaire. Differences in nutrient intake adequacy among groups according to SMS meal frequency were determined using multiple logistic regression. Less frequent SMS meals correlated with a lower intake of protein, water-soluble vitamins, and certain minerals, with more individuals falling below the estimated average requirement for nutrient intake. However, no relationship was found between SMS meal frequency and nutrient intake concerning tentative dietary goals for preventing lifestyle-related diseases. Our findings indicate that adopting SMS meals could achieve adequate intake of some nutrients and enhance overall diet quality among Japanese adults.

Knowledge, Skills, and Experience With Technology in Relation to Nutritional Intake and Physical Activity Among Older Adults at Risk of Falls: Semistructured Interview Study.

More than one-third of older adults (aged ≥65 y) experience falls every year. The prevalent modifiable risk factors for falling are malnutrition and physical inactivity, among others. The involvement of older adults in the prevention of falls can decrease injuries, hospitalizations, and dependency on health care professionals. In this regard, eHealth can support older adults' self-management through more physical activity and adequate food intake. eHealth must be tailored to older adults' needs and preferences so that they can reap its full benefits. Therefore, it is necessary to gain insight into the knowledge, skills, and mindset of older adults living at home who are at risk of falls regarding eHealth. This qualitative study aims to explore older adults' use of everyday digital services and technology and how they acquire knowledge about and manage their nutritional intake and physical activity in relation to their health. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 15 older adults (n=9, 60% women; n=6, 40% men; age range 71-87 y) who had all experienced falls or were at risk of falling. These individuals were recruited from a geriatric outpatient clinic. The interviews were analyzed using deductive content analysis based on a modification of the Readiness and Enablement Index for Health Technology framework. The qualitative data showed that the informants' social networks had a positive impact on their self-management, use of technology, and mindset toward nutritional intake and physical activity. Although the informants generally lived active lives, they all lacked knowledge about how their food intake influenced their physical health, including their risk of falling. Another finding was the large diversity in the use of technology among the informants, which was related to their mindset toward technology. Older adults can use technology for everyday purposes, but some need additional introduction and support to be able to use it for managing their health. They also need to learn about the importance of proper nutritional intake and physical activity in preventing falls. Older adults need a more personalized introduction to technology, nutrition, and physical activity in their contact with health professionals.

Prenatal Vitamin B12 and Children's Brain Development and Cognitive, Language and Motor Outcomes: A Scoping Review.

Adequate maternal nutrient intake of vitamin B12 is critical to fetal brain development and subsequent neurodevelopmental outcomes. We conducted a scoping review to map the current state of knowledge from human epidemiological studies on the associations between maternal vitamin B12 during pregnancy and children's brain, cognitive, language, and motor development to identify gaps in the literature and suggest directions for future research. PubMed and OVID MEDLINE were searched. Search terms were vitamin B12, prenatal or maternal, neurodevelopment or cognitive development or brain. Animal studies were excluded. In total, 148 publications were identified, of which 19 met our inclusion criteria: (1) maternal vitamin B12 assessed via a measure of status, dietary intake, supplementation, or deficiency; and (2) an outcome related to brain development or cognitive, language, or motor development in children less than 18 years of age was assessed. This scoping review suggests that evidence supporting a relationship between maternal vitamin B12 during pregnancy and children's neurodevelopmental outcomes is inconclusive. Further longitudinal research is needed to clarify the effects of maternal vitamin B12 supplementation, status, and intake on children's brain development and neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Effects of an individualized nutritional educational program in pregnant women: A randomized controlled trial in Japan.

To evaluate the effectiveness of an individualized nutritional education program in promoting adequate nutrient intake in pregnant women. A stratified randomized controlled trial was conducted. Participants were stratified by factors affecting the primary outcome and randomly assigned to the intervention or control groups. Intervention group participants received an individualized 30-min booklet-based education program in their 2nd and 3rd trimesters; the control group received usual care. The primary outcome was protein intake after the intervention, which was compared between the intervention and control groups. Secondary outcomes included comparing the amount of increase of protein before and after the intervention. Nutrient intake was measured using a self-administered short dietary history questionnaire, and analyses of covariance and t tests were performed. Of the 130 participants, 66 were assigned to the intervention group and 64 to the control group. There was no difference in protein intake between the two groups after the intervention (p = .051, 95% CI [-0.021, 12.4]). Comparing the increase in protein intake before and after intervention, the intervention group was 7.4 g/day higher than that of the control group (p = .040; F = 4.31; effect size = 0.36). The primary outcome, a comparison of protein intake between the groups after the program, revealed no significant differences. However, on comparing the amount of protein increase before and after the intervention, the intervention group's increase was significantly higher than that of the control group. Results indicate the potential for individualized face-to-face interventions for pregnant women in Japan.

The global diet quality score as an indicator of adequate nutrient intake and dietary quality – a nation-wide representative study

BackgroundThe Global Diet Quality Score (GDQS) was developed to be a simple, timely and cost-effective tool to track, simultaneously, nutritional deficiency and non-communicable disease risks from diet in diverse settings. The objective was to investigate the performance of GDQS as an indicator of adequate nutrient intake and dietary quality in a national-representative sample of the Brazilian population.MethodsNationally-representative data from 44,744 men and non-pregnant and non-lactating women aging ≥ 10 years, from the Brazilian National Dietary Survey were used. Dietary data were collected through two 24-h recalls (24HR). The GDQS was calculated and compared to a proxy indicator of nutrient adequate intake (the Minimum Dietary Diversity for Women—MDD-W) and to an indicator of high-risk diet for non-communicable diseases (caloric contribution from ultra-processed foods—UPF). To estimate the odds for overall nutrient inadequacy across MDD-W and GDQS quintiles, a multiple logistic regression was applied, and the two metrics’ performances were compared using Wald’s post-test.ResultsThe mean GDQS for Brazilians was 14.5 (0–49 possible range), and only 1% of the population had a low-risk diet (GDQS ≥ 23). The GDQS mean was higher in women, elderly individuals and in higher-income households. An inverse correlation was found between the GDQS and UPF (rho (95% CI) = -0.20(-0.21;-0.19)). The odds for nutrient inadequacy were lower as quintiles of GDQS and MDD-W were higher (p-trend < 0.001), and MDD-W had a slightly better performance than GDQS (p-diff < 0.001). Having a low-risk GDQS (≥ 23) lowered the odds for nutrient inadequacy by 74% (95% CI:63%-81%).ConclusionThe GDQS is a good indicator of overall nutrient adequacy, and correlates well with UPF in a nationally representative sample of Brazil. Future studies must investigate the relationship between the GDQS and clinical endpoints, strengthening the recommendation to use this metric to surveillance dietary risks.

Contribution of Food from Market Purchases and Home Production to Child Nutrient Intake: Evidence from the EFFECTS Study Baseline Data

BackgroundChild undernutrition is prevalent in Tanzania, and households rely primarily on local markets and home production as food sources. However, little is known about the contribution of food market purchases to nutrient intakes among children consuming complementary foods. ObjectivesTo quantify the relationships between diversity of foods purchased and produced by households and adequate child nutrient intake in Mara, Tanzania. MethodsCross-sectional baseline dietary and household food source data from the Engaging Fathers for Effective Child Nutrition and Development in Tanzania study were collected from mothers of 586 children aged 9–23 mo clustered in 80 villages in Mara, Tanzania. We conducted mixed effects linear regressions to quantify the association between the diversity of foods consumed at home, from market purchases and home production, and nutrient intake adequacy (based on 24-h food recalls). ResultsChildren had inadequate diets, with fewer than half of children consuming adequate amounts of vitamin A, vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2 (riboflavin), vitamin B9 (folate), calcium, iron, and zinc. Breastfeeding was associated with higher overall mean adequacy (b = 0.15–0.19 across models, P < 0.001). Diversity of foods purchased was positively associated with the intake of vitamin B12 and calcium (both P < 0.001); this effect was attenuated among breastfed children. Among nonbreastfed children, production diversity was positively associated with vitamin A intake (b=0.04; P < .05) but not with intake of other nutrients. ConclusionsBoth household food purchase and food production diversities were positively associated with children’s nutrient intake in rural Mara, Tanzania. Nutrition programming should consider the role of food markets in addition to home food production to improve child diets.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03759821, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03759821.

Patients with mesothelioma and their carer's experience of diet and appetite: A qualitative insight from the Help-Meso Study.

People living with mesothelioma have a high symptom burden that can affect dietary intake and the development of malnutrition, subsequently impacting on patient-related and treatment outcomes. The present study aimed to develop a better understanding of the experiences of diet and appetite in people living with mesothelioma and their informal carers. Twenty-three participants took part in semistructured interviews including 12 people living with mesothelioma (10 pleural and 2 peritoneal) aged 56-83 years and 12 informal carers, predominantly their spouses. Open ended questions focussed on experiences of appetite and diet, as well as approaches to maintain adequate food intake. Thematic analysis was applied. Four themes were generated that included unintentional weight loss and poor appetite during diagnosis and when undergoing medical intervention. Participants managed their appetite and diet by taking each day at a time and this was influenced by the physical and emotional experiences of mesothelioma. The informal carer took on the lead role of managing their relatives' diet and implemented their own nutritional strategies and there were challenges with dietary advice. Appetite was viewed as a multidimensional experience and was grounded within the biopsychosocial model. The findings offer important insights into opportunities informing the development of effective interventions that provide meaningful benefits for individuals living with mesothelioma and their family.

Swallowing Difficulties, Oral Symptoms, and Nutrition in Long-Term Care Elderly Residents – A Secondary Publication

Oral health is often impaired in people living in residential care. In older people, poor oral health is associated with functional deficits, multiple sclerosis, and memory disorders. Keeping one’s teeth healthy throughout life would promote both oral health and general health. Biting and swallowing problems in older people are also linked to oral health, limiting eating activities and requiring diet changes to softer foods that are easy to chew and swallow. This may limit dietary diversity and adequate nutrient intake. Although eating-related chewing and swallowing problems are common in institutionalized residents, they are often addressed too late, when the resident is already malnourished. Nutrition in nursing and retirement homes has been the subject of various studies since the 2000s. However, studies on swallowing and chewing difficulties are scarce and their link to adequate nutrient intake has received lesser attention [6,7].

Donor Haemovigilance: A South Indian experience

Blood Donation from healthy screened donors is a well-tolerated procedure. However a small percentage may experience adverse donor reactions. Donor haemovigilance aims at identifying and documenting these reactions for donor safety.: This prospective cross-sectional study conducted at the Department of Transfusion Medicine &amp; Immunohaematology, Govt. Medical College, Kozhikode, Kerala for a one year study period from January 1st 2018 to December 31st 2018 included all adverse donor reactions and donor determinants in vasovagal reactions in allogenic whole blood donors. Donors were assessed as per the Standard Operating Procedure (S.O.P) based on national guidelines. 350ml collection bags were used. Vasovagal reactions were also graded as per the Blood Donation Reactions Inventory scale (B.D.R.I).: During the 1 year study period, 1.79% of 27,800 donors experienced adverse reactions. The most common symptoms were pre-syncopal 1.33% with syncope forming only 0.3% and local reactions 0.16%. Correlation with donor characteristics using Pearsons chi square test showed significance for female gender, first timers and lack of adequate sleep (&amp;#60;5 hrs). In our study there was no association with age (S.O.P guidelines) or food intake &amp;#60;4hrs.Our study reinforces the safety of blood donation with a very low prevalence of adverse reactions. Proper donor counseling and examination noting donor characteristics like adequate sleep, food intake and alleviation of fears and doubts of first timers can play a major role in further reducing the reaction rate and ensuring repeat donors, the need of the hour.

Does household’s food and nutrient acquisition capacity predict linear growth in children? Analysis of longitudinal data from rural and small towns in Ethiopia

Nutritious foods are unaffordable to the majority of households in lower-income countries. Hence, starchy staples tend to be the main source of diets for men, women, and children, implying poor diet quality and deficiency in key nutrients that are crucial for child’s physical growth and cognitive development. Much of existing studies on child linear growth or stunting examined the impact of current dietary consumption on physical growth even though the effect of diets and nutrition would only be observed with time lag. This study examined the associations between sustained consumption of animal sourced foods (ASFs) and adequate nutrient intakes (measured by the mean nutrient adequacy (MPA)) and linear growth differences among children in rural and small towns in Ethiopia. Using nationally representative longitudinal data, results of fixed effects estimations suggested that a standard deviation increase in the household MPA was associated with a 10–11% increase in the height-for-age z-score; and a 10% increase in the household MPA was associated with a 3.2 – 5.6% reduction in stunting rate in children 6–59 months of age. Results also indicated some associations between past ASFs consumption and current linear growth outcomes in younger children. The gap in the household MPA was over 41%, indicating the need for nutrient-dense ASFs in the household diets despite the sustainability concerns around ASFs. Key implication is that policies and interventions aimed at improving linear growth outcomes of children in rural and small towns in Ethiopia should improve household’s access to ASFs and nutrient acquisition capacity.

Nutritional interventions for preventing and treating pressure ulcers.

Nutritional interventions for preventing and treating pressure ulcers.

Nutrient adequacy for poor households in Africa would improve with higher income but not necessarily with lower food prices

Healthy diets are not affordable to all in Africa due to a combination of high food prices and low incomes. However, how African consumers might change demand patterns if prices or incomes were to change remains poorly understood. Using nationally representative household panel survey data from five sub-Saharan African countries, we model consumer preferences and examine how nutrient intake responds to changing food prices, total expenditures and other demand determinants. Here we find a stronger positive relationship between growth in poor consumers’ total expenditures and their nutrient intake adequacy than has been previously documented. We also find that poor consumers’ intake adequacy is especially sensitive to food staple prices in countries where one food staple dominates poor consumers’ diets. In countries with multiple food staples, no single staple’s price is a strong determinant of poor consumers’ dietary intake adequacy.

Food Security: A Key Component in Promoting Public Health and Nutrition

Food insecurity is a significant issue in public health, with individuals and households experiencing insufficient access to food necessary for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The objective of this article is to explore the role of food security as a critical element in promoting public health and nutrition. This article was written using a qualitative method through a literature review study. Adequate nutrient intake is essential for good health and optimal performance in all areas of life. Inadequate access to nutritious food can weaken the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections and diseases. Food insecurity and poor health can create a cycle of poverty and contribute to health disparities within communities. Additionally, food security and mental health are closely related, and a lack of access to affordable and nutritious food can lead to poorer mental health outcomes such as stress, anxiety, and depression. Addressing food insecurity prevents public health crises and contributes to health disparities. Food security is essential for promoting public health and preventing malnutrition. It ensures adequate nutrient intake, enhancing performance and productivity. Addressing food insecurity is crucial for improving overall well-being and promoting a healthier future for individuals and communities.

Analysis of Relationships between Metabolic Changes and Selected Nutrient Intake in Women Environmentally Exposed to Arsenic.

Nutrients involved in the metabolism of inorganic arsenic (iAs) may play a crucial role in mitigating the adverse health effects associated with such exposure. Consequently, the objective of this study was to analyze the association between the intake levels of nutrients involved in iAs metabolism and alterations in the metabolic profile during arsenic exposure. The study cohort comprised environmentally exposed women: WL (lower total urinary arsenic (As), n = 73) and WH (higher As, n = 73). The analysis included urinary untargeted metabolomics (conducted via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) and the assessment of nutrient intake involved in iAs metabolism, specifically methionine, vitamins B2, B6, and B12, folate, and zinc (based on 3-day dietary records of food and beverages). In the WL group, the intake of all analyzed nutrients exhibited a negative correlation with 5 metabolites (argininosuccinic acid, 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan, 11-trans-LTE4, mevalonic acid, aminoadipic acid), while in the WH group, it correlated with 10 metabolites (5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan, dihyroxy-1H-indole glucuronide I, 11-trans-LTE4, isovalerylglucuronide, 18-oxocortisol, 3-hydroxydecanedioic acid, S-3-oxodecanoyl cysteamine, L-arginine, p-cresol glucuronide, thromboxane B2). Furthermore, nutrient intake demonstrated a positive association with 3 metabolites in the WL group (inosine, deoxyuridine, glutamine) and the WH group (inosine, N-acetyl-L-aspartic acid, tetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone). Altering the intake of nutrients involved in iAs metabolism could be a pivotal factor in reducing the negative impact of arsenic exposure on the human body. This study underscores the significance of maintaining adequate nutrient intake, particularly in populations exposed to arsenic.

HUBUNGAN PEMBERIAN ASI DENGAN KENAIKAN BERAT BADAN PADA BAYI BERAT BADAN LAHIR RENDAH (BBLR) DI RUANG NICU RSUD DR. MOHAMAD SALEH KOTA PROBOLINGGO

Low Birth Weight Babies is a baby born weighing less than 2,500 grams who was weighed from birth to the first 24 hours after birthThe research design in research was correlational analytic research. The population in this study were all LBW babies who were breastfed in February as many as 30 people in February 2023 as many as 30 people. The number of samples is 30 people with the total sampling technique. Collecting data using a questionnaire then the data is processed using SPSS using Chi-squareThe results of the analysis showed that most of the respondents were breastfed, namely 20 people (66.7%), for the baby's weight gain while being breastfed, there were 20 people (66.7%) while the results of the Chi-Square test between AS givers with an increase in baby's weight obtained a p-value of 0.000 (p-value) (smaller than 0.05) so there is a significant correlation between the variable breastfeeding and infant weight gain.One of the benefits of breastfeeding for babies can be seen from the nutritional aspect of babies. Breast milk contains many nutrients, including albumin, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, growth factors, hormones, enzymes, immune substances, and white blood cells, in the right and balanced portions. The child's weight gain is greatly influenced when the child gets adequate food intake, the energy-rich food needed by the child for the purposes of basal metabolism, growth and activity.

Measurements of enteral feeding intolerance in critically ill children: a scoping review.

To examine the measurements on enteral feeding intolerance (EFI) in critically ill children. The Joanna Briggs Institute methods for conducting a scoping review were followed. Articles published since 2004 which assessed EFI in critically ill children were identified. A full search strategy was executed in seven English databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, JBI EBP, CINAHL) and four Chinese databases (CNKI, VIP, Wanfang, Sinomed). Two reviewers screened records according to our inclusion and exclusion criteria, and conducted a full-text review of selected articles. The reference lists of all studied selected were screened for additional sources. Relevant data was extracted using a researcher-developed tool. Of the 627 articles identified, 32 were included in this scoping review. Most articles focused on the measurement of high gastric residual volume (n = 22), followed by diarrhea (n = 20), and vomiting (n = 9). Most of the studies were of observational-analytic design (13/32) and experimental design (8/32). This scoping review addressed the complexity and diversity of EFI measurements. Given the importance of adequacy of enteral nutrient intake, we highlighted the necessary to develop individual measurements of EFI, taking the age of children and disease condition into consideration. Further studies can also investigate accurate and objective physiological measurements of EFI to advance EN and improve outcomes in critically ill children.

Dietary intake and adherence to the Mediterranean diet in semi-professional female soccer players: a cross-sectional study.

Adequate energy and nutrient intakes in athletes contribute to optimal performance and recovery, decrease the risk of injury, and help preserve athletes' health. The Mediterranean diet (MD) is considered suitable for covering the nutritional needs of athletes, while contributing to improve eating habits. The aim of the present study was to investigate the energy and nutrient intakes of semi-professional female soccer players and their adherence to the MD, during the competitive season. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted on twenty-three female soccer players, who were invited to fill in a 3-day food diary twice, one month apart, to assess their energy and nutrient intakes and a validated questionnaire (MEDI-LITE) to evaluate their adherence to MD. Exercise energy expenditure during three training and match-play days was monitored by GPS. On average, the participants consumed 1,981 kcal/day, with 44% of their energy deriving from carbohydrates, 21% from protein, and 34% from fat; the mean MD adherence score was 10.1 ± 1.8, corresponding to a good MD adherence. A substantial percentage of athletes were at risk of insufficient nutrient intakes for vitamin D (100%), iodine (87%), potassium (87%), vitamin E (39%), iron and zinc (17 and 30%, respectively). The evaluation of the dietary intake in female soccer players showed energy deficiency in relation to training level, mainly due to the insufficient intake of carbohydrates, and micronutrient deficiencies. The technical staff should promote adequate consumption of starchy foods in female athletes and emphasize the importance of a proper distribution of energy intake among different eating occasions, including snacks. Periodic monitoring of the nutritional status of micronutrients (vitamin D and some minerals) could help reduce deficiency risk. Over all, nutrition education to improve eating habits of athletes seems worthy of attention, in order to preserve athletes' health and performance.