Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel Research Articles

Analysis of cutting tool geometry induced machining response, surface integrity and anisotropy relation of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel

Although the machining responses of additively manufactured (AM) materials generally differ from wrought materials due to their microstructural properties, there is no study examining the effects of varying cutting tool rake angles in the machining of AM 316L stainless steel material. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effects of machining using varying cutting tool rake angles and cutting speeds on the cutting response in terms of cutting force, tool wear, chip morphology and surface integrity characteristics such as microstructure, micro-hardness and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of powder bed fusion – laser beam (PBF-LB) 316L. The effect of the tool rake angle on the anisotropic structure of the material was revealed by examining the machining-induced affected layer from both the built and scan planes and by comparing it with the wrought material. The findings showed that PBF-LB 316L behaves more abrasively than the wrought, creating higher cutting force and tool wear due to the differences in the friction coefficient and thermal conductivity of the materials. Although the machining-induced affected layer is not the same in the built and scan planes of the PBF-LB material due to anisotropy, it is considerably higher compared to the wrought material, especially at negative rake angles. While the hardness of PBF-LB material is higher at a low cutting speed and negative rake angle, the hardening capacity of wrought material is higher at high cutting speed and negative rake angle. PBF-LB chips have repeated adiabatic shear bands and the secondary deformation zone is more evident in wrought chips.

Dimension Prediction and Microstructure Study of Wire Arc Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel Based on Artificial Neural Network and Finite Element Simulation.

The dimensional accuracy and microstructure affect the service performance of parts fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Regulating the geometry and microstructure of such parts presents a challenge. The coupling method of an artificial neural network and finite element (FE) is proposed in this research for this purpose. Back-propagating neural networks (BPNN) based on optimization algorithms were established to predict the bead width (BW) and height (BH) of the deposited layers. Then, the bead geometry was modeled based on the predicted dimension, and 3D FE heat transfer simulation was performed to investigate the evolution of temperature and microstructure. The results showed that the errors in BW and BH were less than 6%, and the beetle antenna search BPNN model had the highest prediction accuracy compared to the other models. The simulated melt pool error was less than 5% with the experimental results. The decrease in the ratio of the temperature gradient and solidification rate induced the transition of solidified grains from cellular crystals to columnar dendrites and then to equiaxed dendrites. Accelerating the cooling rate increased the primary dendrite arm spacing and δ-ferrite content. These results indicate that the coupling model provides a pathway for regulating the dimensions and microstructures of manufactured parts.

The Effect of the Deposition Strategy and Heat Treatment on Cold Spray Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel

Herein, the effect of heat treatment on the characteristics and properties of cold spray additive manufactured 316L stainless steel employing traditional and a new metal knitting strategy is investigated. 316L feedstock powder characteristics, the geometry of the bulk, microstructure, porosity, microhardness, mechanical isotropy, and residual stress are analyzed in both strategies in as‐sprayed and heat‐treated conditions. Results show that the traditional deposition strategy produced higher mechanical resistance, whereas metal knitting presents a better part geometry accuracy. The heat treatment significantly improves the material strength and the quality of the parts by recovery and recrystallization phenomena. The same microhardness and planar isotropy are achieved after heat treatment of samples produced by both strategies. A discussion about the mechanisms, microstructural, and residual stress evolution is presented.

Surface nanocrystallization mechanism of additive manufactured 316L stainless steel via high-energy shot peening

High-energy shot peening (HESP) is an effective way to achieve surface nanocrystallization modification of additive manufactured metal parts, significantly improving their mechanical properties. Yet, there is still a lack of deep understanding of the surface nanocrystallization evolution mechanism of additive manufactured metals. For that, this study focuses on the surface nanocrystallization mechanism of selective laser melted 316L stainless steel treated by HESP treatment. The detailed microstructural characteristics are investigated via optical microscope (OM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The experimental results show that the matrix layer, the low-strain matrix layer, the elongated ultrafine grain layer, the short rod-like ultrafine grain layer, and the equiaxed nanograin layer occurred in sequence from the matrix to the topmost surface. HESP treatment enables the gradient grain refinement from the matrix with a micrometer structure of about 120 mm to the topmost surface with an average grain size of about 25 nm. The evolution of surface nanocrystallization has resulted from the interaction of high-density dislocation, dislocation tangles (DTS), and twins. This study could provide a deep understanding of the surface nanocrystallization evolution mechanism of additive manufactured metal parts treated by HESP.

ASTM interlaboratory study on tensile testing of AM deposited and wrought steel using miniature specimens

An interlaboratory study, involving eigth international laboratories and coordinated by COMTES FHT (Czech Republic), was conducted to validate tensile measurements obtained using miniature specimens on additively manufactured (AM) components and artifacts. In addition to AM 316L stainless steel (316L SS), a wrought high-strength steel (34CrNiMo6V, equivalent to AISI 4340) was also used. Based on the results, a precision statement in accordance with ASTM E691 standard practice was developed, intended for inclusion in a proposed annex to the ASTM E8/E8M tension testing method. The primary outcomes of the study highlighted the agreement between yield and tensile strength measured from miniature and standard-sized tensile specimens. Furthermore, most tensile properties exhibited similar standard deviations, offering users insight into the efficacy of miniature specimen applications.

True active surface area as a key indicator of corrosion behavior in additively manufactured 316L stainless steel

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additively manufactured (AM) 316L stainless steels (SS) possess much more complex surfaces than their wrought counterparts which affects the corrosion behavior. Surface roughness, a typical metric for assessing corrosion of conventionally manufactured metals, is often ineffective as an independent parameter in characterizing corrosion of the AM metals for their higher surface roughness ranging from 5 to 50 µm. This study experimentally shows that the true active surface area (ATA) is a proper parameter for quick assessment of localized corrosion response of AM 316L SS. Through the potentiodynamic polarization testing on surrogates under full immersion in 0.6 M NaCl solution, the pitting corrosion susceptibility was evaluated. While no consistent correlation to surface roughness was displayed, the pitting breakdown potential (Ep) showed a clear statistical trend at 1/ATA0.5. In addition, normalization of the polarization resistance with the ATA reveals the corresponding surface roughness did not significantly affect the change in open-circuit corrosion phenomenon. This correlation fits well with a previously reported stochastic pitting model on metal surfaces. The results suggest that the importance of ATA as a predictor for predisposition to corrosion in AM 316L SS extends far beyond what has been established for wrought materials.

Influence of surface roughness on laser ultrasonic detection for laser powder bed fusion manufactured 316L stainless steel

In view of the non-destructive and non-contact features, laser ultrasonic (LU) technology has long been the effective method to detect tiny defects for laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) additive manufactured specimens. Of larger concern is the variation and the corresponding mechanism on tested results of LU detection as the property of LPBF additive manufactured specimen is changed. Aiming at the property of surface roughness, this work investigated the propagation characteristics of excited ultrasonic waves in LPBF additive manufactured 316L stainless steel with different surface roughness, as well as the interaction between ultrasonic waves and artificial submillimeter holes. Both numerical simulated and experimental study were conducted. Simulated results revealed that the amplitudes of longitudinal wave (L wave) and its echo wave L1 at the holes exhibited a discernible increase as the surface was coarser. The increase in surface roughness was detrimental to the resolution of defect detection as was expected from the increased amount of noise. LPBF fabrication and the subsequent LU pulse-echo detection were conducted for 316L stainless steel. Both B-scan and C-scan were able to detect the holes with the diameter of 0.6 mm. The speckle phenomenon deriving from the increase in surface roughness emerged, corresponding to the increased ultrasonic signal energy but deteriorated resolution of detected images. It is feasible to optimize LU detected effect by minimize the surface roughness of tested specimens.

Strengthening the additively manufactured 316L stainless steel by adding Al

Owing to the special manufacturing process of additive manufacturing (AM), columnar coarse grains tend to be formed in AM 316L stainless steel, resulting in a low strength, and limiting its application. In this study, with addition of 1 wt% Al, the in-situ formed high-melting-point Al2O3 particles, as an effective nucleating agent, remarkably refined the grains of 316L. Tensile tests were conducted, the ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of Al-reinforced samples were significantly improved by 34.1 % and 55.7 %, while the uniform elongation and total elongation of Al-reinforced 316L decreased slightly, which were 88.3 % and 80.8 % of pure 316L.

Anisotropic fatigue crack propagation in wire arc additively manufactured 316L stainless steel

This work investigates the anisotropy with the fatigue crack propagation behaviour of wire arc additive manufactured 316L stainless steel. Tension and fatigue crack growth tests were conducted on specimens prepared along the traverse, build and diagonal directions from single bead wall deposits. Anisotropy was observed with the fatigue crack propagation behaviour and tensile properties. The fatigue crack growth rates were comparable along the build and traverse directions. However, the slowest crack growth rate was observed along the diagonal direction. The high ductility observed along the diagonal direction limits the crack growth rate.

Multibranches of acoustic emission as identifier for deformation mechanisms in additively manufactured 316L stainless steel

The multiple collapse mechanisms of complex materials produced by additive manufacturing (AM) were identified by measurements of the acoustic emission (AE) of the samples under tension. A perfect correlation between AE avalanches and deformation mechanisms is shown to hold in the extremely complex AM metallic materials such as ‘as-built’ and ‘stress-relieved’ AM 316L stainless steel (SS). The main criterion is that multibranches of the energy-amplitude scaling in AE proves the coexistence of several deformation mechanisms. The as-built AM 316L SS shows three branches in the energy-amplitude scaling of AE signals, which originate from dislocation movements, twinning-detwinning processes and stress-induced martensitic transformations. After stress-relieving annealing at 600 °C for 1 h, two branches remain visible with the dominant deformation mechanisms of dislocation movement and twinning-detwinning. The energy exponent of dislocation avalanches is ε = 1.6, which is not affected by the heat treatment. The twinning-detwinning exponent increases from 1.8 to 2.0 after annealing. The avalanche behavior of the martensitic transformation shows power laws with energy exponents near ε = 1.65 in stress-induced martensite in as-built AM 316L SS and ε = 1.8 for strain-induced martensite in stress-relieved AM 316L SS. This multibranching phenomenon can, thus, be used to identify the mechanisms underlying the deformation of AM-alloys and facilitates online monitoring of deformation processes.

Effect of cellular structure on the mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel fabricated by EBF3

The cellular structure formed in additive manufactured 316L stainless steel (316L SS) plays a crucial role in achieving strength–ductility synergy. The cellular structure was also found in the 316L SS fabricated by electron beam freeform fabrication process (EBF3), and its microstructural characterization was analyzed. Interrupted tensile tests were carried out to demonstrate the effect of the cellular structure on the mechanical properties. The results showed that the microstructure of the as-deposited 316L SS consisted of the single austenite phase, and the enrichment of Cr and Mo elements was found in the cellular boundary. The orientation of the cellular structure and boundary was similar, and the obvious {100} preferred orientation was parallel to the building direction. The yield strength and fracture elongation of the as-deposited 316L SS parts were 316 MPa and 37.2%, respectively. Its ultimate tensile strength with a value of 632 MPa, was higher than that manufactured by conventional methods. The hardness and elastic modulus in the cellular interior were 2.88 ± 0.11 GPa and 227.45 ± 10.66 GPa, respectively. The cellular boundary had a higher hardness and a lower elastic modulus than the cellular interior. At the initial stage of tensile deformation, the cellular boundary deforms first due to its lower elastic modulus, causing the dislocation pileup and orientation change. The high dislocation density improved the slip resistance leading to the appearance of deformation twins after necking. The micron-dimples and nano-dimples formed in the fracture surface with the deformation of the cellular boundary and interior. Different from 316L SS fabricated by other additive manufacturing processes, the cellular structure improved the strain hardening capacity of the 316L SS fabricated by the EBF3 process.

Processing Techniques, Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel: Review

Processing Techniques, Microstructural and Mechanical Properties of Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel: Review

Evaluating and comparing secondary machining characteristics of wrought and additive manufactured 316L stainless steel

This paper is based on evaluating, analysing and comparing the secondary machining characteristics of wrought and additive manufactured 316L Stainless Steel. This paper is an attempt to determine the process efficiency and evaluate the machinability factors which effect the service life. Stainless steel is a historic iron carbon alloy reputed for its high corrosive resistance and extensive application base. Threading, tapping, reaming and knurling are the most common secondary machining operations after a primary machining operation to achieve a required surface finish and form. As threading plays a significant role in fastening two components together. Threading is selected as a secondary machining operation in this paper. The research methodology consists of conducting threading operation on a hollow cylinder of 50 mm diameter using a lathe. Threads are cut into the workpiece using variable cutting parameters such as spindle speed; 90 and 180 rpm and coolant condition; on/off. Thread pitch which is also the feed rate (1 mm/rev) and Depth of Cut (0.3 mm) remains constant for all the trails. Statistical data are collected and analysed by qualitative and quantitative evaluation. The outputs under consideration to evaluate the machinability includes the cutting forces, thread profile accuracy (pitch) and tool wear. It has been observed that the cutting force and the tool wear was predominantly high for SLM compared to wrought. The paper concludes to convey the point that wrought components has better machinability characteristics than additive manufactured stainless steel.

Weldability of Additive Manufactured Stainless Steel in Resistance Spot Welding

The manufacture of complicated automobile components that are joined by resistance spot welding requires considerable cost and time. The use of additive manufacturing technology to manufacture automobile components helps reduce the overall time consumption and yields high accuracy. In this study, the weldability of conventional (C) 316L stainless steel and additive manufactured (AM) 316L stainless steel was evaluated and analyzed. After deriving the lobe diagram for both the materials, the monitoring data, nugget diameter, tensile shear strength, and hardness were analyzed. The findings of the study have opened up a massive potential for use in resistance spot welding technology for additive manufactured materials’ industries in the forthcoming years. When AM 316L stainless steel was welded in the constant current control mode, a nugget diameter of up to 4.7 mm, which is below the international standard, could be secured. Through the constant power control mode, however, the nugget diameter could be improved to a sufficient level of 5.8 mm.

Tribological Performance of Laser Shock Peened Cold Spray Additive Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel

Abstract In recent years, cold spray additive manufacturing (CSAM) has become an attractive technology for surface modification and protection. However, due to the intrinsic porous nature of CSAM coatings, they suffer from rapid material degradation due to premature brittle fracturing induced by tribological interactions. In this work, laser shock peening (LSP) was utilized as a post-processing technology to mitigate the surface porosity and augment the surface characteristics of CSAM 316L stainless steel (SS). Due to the synergistic influence of severe plastic deformation and rapid surface heating, the surface porosities were effectively healed, thus reducing the surface roughness. Combined with the surface-strengthening effects of LSP, the frictional resistance and transfer layer formation on the CSAM LSP surfaces were reduced. The underlying mechanisms for these findings were discussed by correlating the atomic, microstructural, and physical features of the LSP surfaces. Based on these findings, it can be suggested that LSP is indeed a useful technique to control the surface characteristics of CSAM 316L SS coatings.

Enhanced corrosion resistance of laser additive manufactured 316L stainless steel by ultrasonic surface rolling process

The ultrasonic surface rolling process (USRP) was adopted to strengthen the surface corrosion resistance of laser additive manufactured 316L stainless steel (LAMed 316L), and the strengthening mechanism of USRP on corrosion resistance was studied with various static pressures. The surface integrity and corrosion behaviors of LAMed 316L were analyzed by the tests of surface roughness, microhardness, residual stress, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), Xray diffraction (XRD), potentiodynamic polarization, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), Mott-Schottky (M-S), Xray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and three-dimensional microscope, respectively. The results indicated that the LAMed 316L after USRP obtained the reduced surface roughness up to 95 %, the improved microhardness up to 53 %, the introduced residual compressive stress up to −212 MPa, and the decreased grain diameter about 16 %. The LAMed 316L treated by USRP under the static pressure of 200 N presented the supreme corrosion resistance with the corrosion current density decreased up to 41 %, the polarization resistance increased up to 34 %, and the donor and acceptor densities reduced about 51 % and 81 %, respectively. The corrosion resistance of LAMed 316L was strengthened by USRP, benefiting from the modified surface roughness, grain refinement, increased Cr2O3 content in the passive film, work hardening, and residual compressive stress.

Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of laser-powder bed fusion processed 316L stainless steel with an ultrasonic-nanocrystalline surface modification

Because the surface roughness of additively manufactured (AM) metallic alloys affect their mechanical properties, surface post-treatment has become an attractive strategy for improving the performance of AM parts. Although several studies have revealed that surface treatment improves the mechanical properties of AM parts, changes in their surface morphologies and deformation mechanisms have not been well investigated. To solve this problem, in this study, the role of ultrasonic nanocrystalline surface modification (UNSM) treatment on the plastic deformation behavior of AM 316L stainless steel was investigated. The shear strain from the UNSM treatment induced severe grain refinement and crumbled traces at the surface of the as-built samples, causing a strength-ductility combination improvement compared to the non-treated sample. Moreover, the UNSM treatment removed the unmelted particles that relieved strain localization at the surface of the as-built sample during the plastic deformation process. Meanwhile, UNSM treatment in the machined sample reduced the surface quality, such as microcracks, which causes strength-ductility combination degradation. This result indicates that the post-surface mechanical treatment of the as-built metallic parts effectively improves the mechanical properties. This result was accomplished by inducing a gradient microstructure and a crumbled trace, which contribute to the strength improvement and the crack growth inhibition, respectively.

Numerical and experimental investigation of the thermal behavior and microstructure of wire arc additive manufactured 316L stainless steel straight wall part

The heat transfer behavior during wire arc additive manufacturing is closely related to the dimensional accuracy and performance of the formed part. To investigate the thermal behavior of stainless steel 316L straight wall part fabricated by the wire arc additive manufacturing process, a three-dimensional transient finite element model is established based on the double elliptic heat source model. At the same time, the temperature measurement experiment on the characteristic position of the substrate is carried out. The thermal cycle curve obtained by the finite element model is in good agreement with the measured result. By analyzing the simulation results, the finite element model established can effectively reveal the thermal behaviors such as melting, solidification, heat accumulation and remelting during the forming process of the straight wall part. In addition, the solidification parameters obtained by the model are correlated with the microstructure. High G/R induces the production of cellular crystals and columnar dendrites, on the contrary, the formation of equiaxial crystals, which provide guidance for the prediction of the morphology of the microstructure.

Numerical simulation of laser ultrasonic detection of the surface microdefects on laser powder bed fusion additive manufactured 316L stainless steel

A numerical model is presented in this article to investigate the interactions between laser generated ultrasonic and the microdefects (0.01 to 0.1 mm), which are on the surface of the laser powder bed fusion additive manufactured 316L stainless steel. Firstly, the influence of the transient sound field and detection positions on Rayleigh wave signals are investigated. The interactions between the varied microdefects and the laser ultrasonic are studied. It is shown that arrival time of reflected Rayleigh (RR) waves wave is only related to the location of defects. The depth can be checked from the feature point Q, the displacement amplitude and time delay of converted transverse (RS) wave, while the width information can be evaluated from the RS wave time delay. With the aid of fitting curves, it is found to be linearly related. This simulation study provides a theoretical basis for quantitative detection of surface microdefects of additive manufactured 316L stainless steel components.

Heterogeneous slip localization in an additively manufactured 316L stainless steel

Additively manufactured 316L stainless steels display significantly higher yield strength than their as-cast or wrought counterparts. This is associated with the micro-scale cellular structure and complex grain and sub-grain structure, resulting from high cooling rates occurring during the additive manufacturing process. The consequences of these peculiar microstructural features on plastic localization early in the plastic regime at the sub-grain scale are investigated. The plastic localization involved during monotonic deformation of conventional and additive manufactured 316L stainless steels is investigated using high-resolution digital image correlation. Significant heterogeneous slip localization is observed in the additively manufactured 316L stainless steels compared to the wrought 316L stainless steels. The cellular structure and low-angle grain boundaries are observed to control the incipient plasticity. In addition, slip localization characteristics indicate that the additional strengthening in the AM material is mainly related to the cellular structure acting as a dislocation forest-type obstacle.