Additional Tax Research Articles

Basic income in Australia: an exploration

PurposeBasic income (BI) is predicted to be the major economic intervention in response to raising income inequality and accelerating technological progress. Financing is often the first question that arises when discussing a BI. A thorough answer to this question will determine the sustainability of any BI program. However, BI experiments implemented worldwide have not answered this question. This paper explores two options for a BI program in Australia: (1) BI and (2) top-up basic income (TBI).Design/methodology/approachThe authors employ “back-of-the-envelope” calculations with the latest publicly available data on income distribution, the poverty line and the share of income tax in the government revenue to estimate the costs of implementing BI in Australia.FindingsEven without any change in the current tax regulations, the TBI option, which requires a contribution of 2–3% disposable income from net contributors, will guarantee that no Australian family lives under the current national poverty line. The BI for all options is not financially feasible under the current tax and transfer regulations because it requires an additional tax rate of at least 42% of disposable income from net contributors.Practical implicationsThe results of this study can serve as inputs for the design and implementation of BI options in Australia and similar countries.Originality/valueThis is the first paper that examines the macroeconomic effects of BI options in Australia.

Оценка экономической эффективности работы нефтедобывающей компании в условиях перехода на режим с налогом на добавленный доход

Additional income tax depends on the financial result, not on the gross production indicators, as is the case of the mineral extraction tax. The authors described the advantages and disadvantages of the new fiscal regime of additional income tax and calculated it for the oil producing company Udmurtneft JSC. They also assessed the operation efficiency for the Arkhangelsk oil field under two fiscal regimes and concluded that the transition could eventually reduce the tax burden for the company. The article introduces a new model for efficient mineral extraction during transition to the additional income tax regime. The model provides economic efficiency through such indicators as taxable profit, net profit, capital investments, net cash flow, and new present value. A stress analysis revealed various factors that affect the tax value, i.e., the dependence of the new present value on the production level under two fiscal regimes, the management system complex, unit costs per 1 well and 1 ton of oil, the production level and specific costs for 1 well and 1 ton of oil, etc. The efficiency calculations and stress tests showed that the proposed model can be used to control the value of various indicators to achieve optimal new present values. Switching to profit-based tax was found feasible in terms of economic indicators: a higher new present value, a lower tax burden, and more profit, even with increasing costs.

Why Is Wealth White?

Racial wealth inequality is no accident of history. Rather, it is the intended result of the southern Democrats in Congress who controlled federal tax policy throughout most of the twentieth century. Beginning in the 1930s, champions of white supremacy, such as Senator Pat Harrison (D-MI), Senator Walter George (D-GA), and Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. (D-VA), turned to an ostensibly race-neutral provision of the US income tax code—the preferential treatment of gains from investment—to uphold their (im)moral economy of “whites-only” wealth. After 1965, these segregationists’ successors—particularly Senator Russell B. Long (D-LA) and Senator Lloyd Bentsen (D-TX)—furtively rebuilt and shored up the structure of racial inequality with additional tax breaks (called “tax expenditures”) for investors. Our income tax system embodies—and immortalizes—a Jim Crow–era moral economy of “whites-only” wealth. Thanks to pro-investment tax expenditures, the racial wealth gap has widened over the last four decades as the very richest American households—the white 1 percent—compounded their wealth, at the expense of everyone else.

The current state and development prospects of independent oil companies in Russia

Aim. The presented study aims to analyze and examine the current state of the independent oil business in Russia, assess its development prospects, develop and propose measures necessary to support this sector of the oil and gas industry.Tasks. The authors describe the state of the independent oil business in the Russian Federation at the current stage and identify problems in its development; analyze the prospects and trends of business development in this industry; suggest possible measures to improve the situation.Methods. This study uses complementary general scientific (classification, comparison, abstraction, etc.) and special methods of cognition (observation, examination, generalization, etc.).Results. The study identifies several problems that hinder the operation of small and medium private enterprises in the oil and gas industry: high well servicing costs; high additional costs for the purchase, implementation, and maintenance of upgraded equipment; high dependence on the situation in the domestic market and price changes; the problem of attracting qualified personnel to small companies. The role and importance of independent oil companies in Russia are substantiated. The following proposals for improving the state of the independent oil production sector are presented: improving legislation and developing regulations aimed at simplifying the official transfer of oil fields that are uneconomic and unprofitable for large vertically integrated oil companies (VIOCs) to small market players, provided that it will be beneficial to all parties; further stimulating close mutually beneficial cooperation of the government represented by research universities, large oil companies and small businesses engaged in oil production; providing and modifying various preferential coefficients — for example, returning a reduction coefficient that takes into account the production of super-viscous oil; providing benefits to small independent oil companies in terms of resuming production at previously mothballed or abandoned fields; provision benefits to independent oil companies (IOCs) for the purchase and (or) production of industrial equipment necessary for the development and operation of oil fields; introducing a system of tax deductions aimed at stimulating geological exploration.Conclusions. The prospects for the functioning and development of IOCs in Russia are great. The government should provide more support to IOCs. It seems feasible to take several protective measures to ensure the sustainable growth of such firms at the initial stage. In turn, the operation of IOCs facilitates the development of regions (additional tax deductions, employment, etc.), which has a positive effect on the national economy as a whole. Underestimating small businesses’ role and prospects in the oil industry may lead to the loss of existing opportunities and Russia’s leading positions in the global oil and gas industry.

The Spanish Tax System and Tax Policy in Spain in the Context of the Covid-19 Pandemic Framework

The purpose of this paper is to characterize the Spanish tax system and to present the main assumptions of tax policy in Spain in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic framework in order to formulate conclusions as to the desirable (or undesirable) directions of tax policy in other countries, including Poland in particular. In fact, the research hypothesis is that, to a large extent, certain changes in the Spanish tax system in 2021 may inspire the orientation of tax policies in other countries, especially in Poland. Spain, like other countries, had to face a need to modify its tax policy due to the effects and challenges that the pandemic period has created, but the Spanish tax policy was shaped in a completely different way than the Polish policy in the same pandemic circumstances. Obviously, it is necessary to take into account systemic differences in both countries, but these may also constitute a contribution to the determination of the desired directions of systemic changes, on the basis of the experiences from the pandemic period, which highlighted many – not only temporary – problems. The methodology used in the paper is a dogmatic-legal and legal-comparative method, taking into account the provisions of constitutional law and tax law, the body of literature and case law as well as some economic data. The results of the research is the formulation of some conclusions as to the desirable directions of tax policy taking into account the indisputable need for higher or additional tax revenues (necessary in the face of excessive fiscal indicators), but at the same time realizing the basic tax principles, such as, in particular, the principles of tax capacity, equity, simplicity and transparency and respecting the financial autonomy of regional and local self-government units. In fact, a responsible tax policy should be aimed at ensuring financial as well as environmental sustainability, while being relevant to the current times and their economic, technological and social realities, always in line with the fundamental principle of social justice and tax (economic) capacity. This means, in particular, that the increase in public burdens (if that may not be avoided for the implementation of the fiscal function) should affect carefully selected entities – those with a greatest tax capacity (e.g., tax payers with the highest incomes or the largest assets). On the other hand, it may serve important non-fiscal objectives (changing unfavourable dietary habits, countering speculative transactions, protecting the environment). At the same time, for these assumptions to have a positive effect, it is necessary to combat tax avoidance at its roots by building up the conviction among taxpayers that the tax system is fair, transparent and friendly, and for this purpose, it is necessary to be honest in the messages addressed to taxpayers about the foundations and assumptions of that system and to facilitate its practical operation in contacts with the tax administration. Finally, in the context of the fact that the fiscally negative consequences of the so-called Polish Deal are largely borne by local governments, attention should be paid to the Spanish system, in which regional and local governments have extensive tax authority, which allows them to "neutralize" tax decisions of the national legislator that are undesirable from their point of view and may threaten their financial independence or create excessive tax burden for their citizens

The Effect of Martial Law on Transfer Pricing in Ukraine

The purpose of this study was to describe the current state of tax control over transfer pricing in Ukraine. Analysing the effect of war and martial law on the tax system on the whole and transfer pricing as well, I would like to say that the situation shook the system, but nevertheless, it managed to rehabilitate itself and survive, in turn, standing on wartime slats. The practical significance of the study lies in the complex analysis and evaluation of the current situation of the transfer pricing processes taking place in Ukraine. For Ukraine, in practice, the experience of European countries and case law can be found, which have formed a number of important and progressive legal positions and conclusions to improve control in the field of transfer pricing. The practical novelty of the obtained results consists in a comprehensive analysis of the impact of transfer pricing on the current state of tax management in general. While the EU countries and the UK introduce additional temporary taxes on excess profits on electricity production between 2021 and 2023, as well as on excess profits received from activities in the oil, gas, coal and oil refining sectors, Ukraine introduces an income tax for all companies in any industries in the amount of 2% of the turnover, in order to keep the business afloat. In particular, I would like to note the effectiveness of the work within the framework of the EU4PFM international project, which made it possible, even in wartime, not only to preserve the achievements of pre-war times, but also to start the development of new software products and OECD support for the harmonization of Ukrainian legislation with EU norms in the context of the further integration of Ukraine into the European Union. The main goal of this work is to determine the effectiveness of transfer pricing in Ukraine today, as well as to assess the development prospects for Ukraine in this direction.

Effect of CO2 tax on energy use in oil production: waterflooding optimization under different emission costs

Tackling emissions from hydrocarbon production is a necessity because hydrocarbon production will last for a prolonged time. As a popular hydrocarbon production method, waterflooding operation is energy-intensive and accounts for significant CO2 emissions. This article investigates the effect of CO2 tax level on recovery process of already producing fields with waterflooding. Our methodology is waterflooding optimization in reservoir simulation models, specifically optimizing well-controls. Unlike traditional studies, our optimization objective comprises two components: the profitability of hydrocarbon production and an additional tax proportional to CO2 emissions. The associated CO2 emissions is estimated using a scheme developed upon an integrated model of reservoir, surface network, and topside facility. We examine our methodology on two cases with heterogeneous reservoir models. In each case, we optimize multi-scenarios enforcing different CO2 tax rates. The solutions indicate that imposing a higher CO2 tax rate reduces both emissions and hydrocarbon production. The fractional reduction of oil produced is however smaller than the emission reduction. While an increased tax rate drives the topside equipment to operate at higher efficiencies, the main effects of a higher tax rate are reduced water injection and more efficient subsurface drainage. There is a non-linear relationship between the reduced production and emissions. For increasing tax levels there are diminishing returns on lower emissions, reflecting reduced opportunities for emission reduction by changes in the drainage strategy. Some increments on the tax rate will therefore have negligible impacts on the optimal drainage strategy, and hence an adverse effect on the profitability with negligible emission reduction.

SHELL Genetic Testing: A Key Enabler of Yield Improvement and Sustainable Palm Oil Production

Sustainable production of palm oil can be boosted by the use of appropriate technological tools to improve productivity within existing acreage. The discovery of the SHELL gene and subsequent development of a diagnostic assay to differentiate oil palm’s three fruit forms set the stage for the application of such technological tools by commercial estates prior to planting. The use of DNA-testing can ensure that new planting and re-planting programmes exploit the hybrid vigour expected from selected maternal (dura) and paternal (pisifera) lines. An expanded nationwide survey of more than a million seeds and seedlings not only confirmed the robustness and scalability of SHELL DNA-testing, but more importantly revealed a 12.8 per cent level of undesired planting material across the Malaysian supply chain, which far exceeds that allowed by the national standard. If SHELL testing had been deployed in the past, the value of crude palm oil (CPO) and crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) production in recent years would have increased by $1.63 billion USD in 2021 (or $276/ha/yr), resulting in up to $2.17 billion per year in increased economic activity (or $367/ha/yr), and up to $0.52 billion in additional tax collection by the Malaysian central government (or $88/ha/yr). Compared to the cost of testing of $4 per hectare per year, if testing had been done in the past, each dollar spent on testing would have returned $69.0 in additional production and $91.8 in economic gains. This indicates that the adoption of DNA-testing to manage the oil palm seed and seedling supply chain is necessary if the industry hopes to increase sustainability, productivity, and profitability in the long-term. Keywords: Sustainable palm oil, SHELL DNA testing, non-tenera contamination, seed testing, supply chain quality.

Threshold effects of public debt on economic growth in South Africa: an application of a regression kink with an unknown threshold

PurposeSouth African public debt has recently increased significantly and has reached worrying levels. This study aims to examine the debt threshold effects on economic growth in South Africa, with an objective of suggesting a debt threshold as South African policymakers will seek to reduce debt to a sustainable level in the coming years.Design/methodology/approachThe study applies a recent novel methodology advanced by Hansen (2017) that allows modelling a regression kink with an unknown threshold.FindingsThe findings of this study indicate a robust debt threshold of 37% of gross domestic product (GDP). Below this threshold, debt is growth-enhancing, but above 37% of GDP, debt is harmful to growth in South Africa.Practical implicationsAmong other things, to reduce the debt-to-GDP ratio, South Africa will need a fiscal consolidation policy by undertaking reforms to state-owned companies to reduce their reliance on public funds, as well as putting in place economic measures to boost long-term growth. The country should also improve tax collection in order to realize additional tax revenue through enhancing compliance and other revenue collection measures.Originality/valueMost of the existing studies on debt threshold effects in Africa are panel data studies, which assume parameter homogeneity, by determining a single debt threshold value applicable to all countries. This can be misleading as the debt-growth nexus is country-specific, being conditional on several factors, such as institutional quality. The present study applies a recent novel methodology, which allows to model a regression kink with an unknown threshold, for the case of South Africa. The methodology endogenously determines the debt threshold while also allowing a country-specific analysis.

Article: Do GILTI + BEAT + BMT = GloBE?

The enactment by the United States in August 2022 of a minimum tax on the global book earnings of large corporations (the book minimum tax, or BMT) raises the question of how the US minimum taxes – including the global intangible low-taxed income (GILTI), the base erosion and anti-abuse tax (the BEAT) and the BMT – interact with the global minimum tax, or GLoBE, agreed to by over 135 countries under an OECD framework. Particularly important are questions regarding the hierarchy in application of different regimes. In the context of multiple agreements for global minimum taxes, how to determine who gets priority of taxing rights? To answer these types of questions it’s helpful to parse the technical differences between the different minimum taxes outlined in the GLoBE model rules and the US GILTI, BEAT, and BMT. The GLoBE model rules fail to provide clear guidance as to whether or not either GILTI or the BMT will provide the United States with the first right to tax the earnings of US companies’ foreign subsidiaries and whether enactment of the BMT will shield US companies from having other countries impose additional taxes on their domestic earnings. But there are good reasons to conclude that taken as a whole, the panoply of minimum taxes enacted by the United States are at least equivalent to the regime for taxing multinationals’ global earnings proposed by the OECD. International tax, tax policy, OECD, minimum taxes, global minimum tax, alternative minimum tax, book minimum tax, pillar 2, GILTI.

Empirical Exploration of Involvement in Philanthropic Organizations: Focusing on Perceptions of Welfare and Social Fairness1)

This study aims to examine the influence of citizens' perceptions of welfare and social fairness on philanthropic behaviors utilizing the responses of 8,077 individuals from the Social Integration Survey 2021. As a result of the ordered logistic regression analysis, it was found that perceived importance of distribution and willingness to pay additional taxes had a significant positive effect on involvement in philanthropic organizations, while, civic responsibility to help people in need had a significant negative effect on involvement in philanthropic organizations. In addition, it was found that perceived fairness of socioeconomic distribution structure had
 a significant positive effect, while, perceived fairness of health and medical benefits had a significant negative effect on involvement in philanthropic organizations. This study examined the influence on philanthropic behaviors from various point of views by addressing individual's perceptions of welfare and society. In particular, this study is meaningful as it deepens understanding of individual philanthropic behavior by considering, both of influence, on the perceptions of the subject of welfare (expenses), and how fair major sectors of the society such as education, employment, and distribution structure.

Innovation, Profit-Seeking, and the Formation of High Value-Added Companies: An Empirical Study on China’s Listed Manufacturing Companies

ABSTRACT Increasing the value-added ratios (VARs) of manufacturing companies or industries is an important proposition of many governments’ industrial upgrading strategies. Since the VAR has never been the goal of profit-seeking enterprises, whether innovation, which plays an important role in achieving profitability objectives, also has an impact over the VAR, has become a noteworthy issue. Using data from China’s listed manufacturing companies from 2012 to 2019, we conducted an empirical study to analyze the impact of R&D intensities on the VARs, which was further explained under the policy of additional tax deductions for R&D expenses. We found that there is a time lag in the impact of a company’s R&D activities on its VAR: Only when its current-year R&D intensity has been changed for over 1 year, can it incur a significant positive impact on the corporate VAR. And this positive impact grows over time. Moreover, such impact is independent of profitability and thus, although R&D is a profit-motivated activity, increasing the R&D intensity could indeed increase a company’s VAR, and facilitate the formation of a high value-added company.

Assessment of the Financial Benefits from Wind Farms in US Rural Locations

Rural locations provide limited economic opportunities, mainly relying on agricultural activities, with scarce industrial or commercial investment and employment. This has led to higher risks related to poverty, with a lack of opportunities for education, healthcare, and general services leading to rural migration. On the other hand, wind energy is growing exponentially in the United States (US). Rural locations offer very good siting options for wind farms considering the ever-growing size of their equipment and significant required area. Therefore, wind farms may provide financial opportunities to local rural communities, reducing poverty risks and improving living standards. These financial benefits include rental income for landowners, additional tax collection for public service funding, increased income for school districts, and overall larger local investments. However, the available data are too coarse, broad, and unconnected, not allowing local communities, wind developers, and stakeholders a clear panoramic of the benefits that each individual location, school district, or landowner may receive. This research compiled dispersed big data for its integration into a large Geographic Information System (GIS). This system is capable of performing analysis to provide a much better understanding of the actual benefits that the wind industry provides to each individual rural stakeholder. Data were converted to geospatial layers, when required, to allow for a fuller comprehension of all factors impacting financial benefits and risks from the wind industry. Analyses were expanded to evaluate the lease financial benefits for landowners in Texas, applying the data provided by local and state agencies. The approach developed in this research will allow for its application in diverse geographical locations to explore additional financial benefits that each individual rural stakeholder may receive from the wind industry. This will allow local authorities, landowners, wind developers, and communities to better negotiate for the future expansion of wind energy, providing all parties involved with significant benefits and allowing the continuous growth of renewable energy to overcome the damaging effects from climate change.

How to Design a Bank Levy: The Effect of a Levy Scheme on Bank Performance and its Activities

Purpose: One of the regulatory responses to the 2008 financial crisis was to internalize the costs related to banks’ distress by introducing bank levies. More than 23 European banking sectors have been confronted with the new levy regime imposing the additional tax on banks’ balance sheet. Methodology: This study analyzes the effect of the levy introduction on banks’ profitability, credit activity, and on their business models. More importantly, we confront two different levy regimes – one imposed on banks’ assets and the other on liabilities – to assess their differential impact. A generalized least squares regression with a random effect is performed on a data sample of Hungarian and German credit institutions from 2005 to 2015. Results: The results show that levy introduction weakened banking sectors in terms of their profitability as well as their lending activity. Even though banks try to compensate for the cost of the levies by passing some of the costs on to the customers and restructuring their operations to limit the tax burden, we find that these activities are not sufficient to offset the whole tax burden. We also note that while the asset levy has a more severe effect on banks’ profits, the liability levy severely affects banks’ lending due to lower interest margin resulting from higher cost of funding. Findings: Our research results provide important conclusions for regulators, especially during turbulent periods such as the COVID-19 pandemic to strengthen the banking sectors by considering the levy suspension.

NOVUM AND UNREVEALED DATA IN TAX DISPUTES IN INDONESIA: A LEGAL CERTAINTY PERSPECTIVE

The previously novum and undisclosed data are still (potentially) a problem in tax administration in Indonesia, as the facts show that there are several court decisions regarding the issuance of additional tax underpayment assessment letters (SKPKBT). It is necessary to conduct a study expected to produce legal concepts from the novum and data that were not previously disclosed to provide legal certainty to taxpayers and the state. Based on the normative juridical method, two conclusions were drawn. First, the novum arrangement and/or data that are seriously disclosed in the Elucidation of Article 15 paragraph (1) of the KUP Law, PMK Number 145/PMK.03/2012 in conjunction with PMK Number 18/PMK.03/2021, and SE-33/PJ. 31/1990 is still unclear, biased, and contains multiple meanings or provides an opportunity to be interpreted differently. Second, there is a renewal of understanding and/or understanding of novum and/or data that were not previously disclosed, which should reach the principles of propriety to act or act and propriety not to work or not to act against taxpayers and tax authorities. It is recommended that the sentence structure, wording, and use of the term novum and/or previously undisclosed data, which will later be standardized in tax laws and regulations, refer to data, documents, evidence, and parts of data, documents, and evidence. - evidence that is not used as the basis for issuing a tax assessment letter following the provisions of the legislation in the field of taxation.

A pilot cost-benefit analysis of a children's spectacle reimbursement scheme: Evidence for Including children's spectacles in Mongolia's Social Health Insurance.

Globally, 12.8 million children have vision impairment due to uncorrected refractive error (URE). In Mongolia, one in five children needs but do not have access to spectacles. This pilot cost-benefit analysis aims to estimate the net benefits of a children's spectacles reimbursement scheme in Mongolia. A willingness-to-pay (WTP) survey using the contingent valuation method was administered to rural and urban Mongolia respondents. The survey assessed WTP in additional annual taxes for any child with refractive error to be provided government-subsidised spectacles. Net benefits were then calculated based on mean WTP (i.e. benefit) and cost of spectacles. The survey recruited 50 respondents (mean age 40.2 ± 9.86 years; 78.0% women; 100% response rate) from rural and urban Mongolia. Mean WTP was US$24.00 ± 5.15 (95% CI US$22.55 to 25.35). The average cost of a pair of spectacles in Mongolia is US$15.00. Subtracting the average cost of spectacles from mean WTP yielded a mean positive net benefit of US$9.00. A spectacle reimbursement scheme is potentially a cost-effective intervention to address childhood vision impairment due to URE in Mongolia. These preliminary findings support the proposal of the inclusion of children's spectacles into existing Social Health Insurance. A much larger random sample could be employed in future research to increase the precision and generalisability of findings.

Implementation of sugar-sweetened beverages tax and its perception among public health stakeholders. A study from Poland

BackgroundOne of tools to tackle growing problem of overweight and obesity are the taxation mechanisms applied to sugar-sweetened beverages, which are expected to influence the common eating behaviors, but also they have impact on the market and public finances. The solution is therefore highly entangled in the complex of social and intersectoral interests generating a number of opportunities and threats affecting its feasibility.AimsThe study aims to depict the views of Polish stakeholders on the implementation of the sugar tax in Poland, particularly the perception of success determinants, barriers, as well as views on the features of the implemented solutions and possible alternatives.MethodsWe used semi-structured interviews with 18 individuals representing key public health stakeholders in Poland. The interview consisted of four parts, where first concentrated on the advantages and disadvantages of the SSB tax, the second part explored stakeholder involvement and stances, third concerned the feasibility of the project, and in the fourth part respondents were asked for suggestions for decision-makers regarding the content of the project and its implementation process. To reconstruct position of 4 main political parties we applied desk research. We used MAXQDA v2020 to analyse the collected data.ResultsStakeholders tend to expressed conflicting views on the effectiveness, relevance and socio-economic impact of the SSB tax. All of them agreed that the tax may appear severe for the poorest groups, children and adolescents, while disagreeing about the economic impact of the levy. The allocation of additional tax revenues was raising doubts, with stakeholders believing that the fiscal aim is the basic reason for implementing the tax, while these resources should be primarily dedicated to health promotion intervention and prevention of diet-related diseases. On the other hand, the political debate on the tax was highly superficial with strong populism arising of the presented positions.ConclusionsThere is a need to conduct a thorough public debate and improvements in terms of public communication to increase social awareness, sealing and refining the implemented solutions. Close cooperation with market players and non-governmental organizations is highly recommended.

Malingering and Stimulant Medications Abuse, Misuse and Diversion.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that interferes with multiple aspects of daily functioning. Malingering or feigning of symptoms can be a major challenge during ADHD assessment. Stimulant medication abuse, misuse and diversion may constitute another challenge during management. A literature search of the past 15 years on the topic continued to suggest that there are several reasons for malingering and faking ADHD symptoms. Some of the reasons include the intent to obtain prescriptions for stimulant medications for performance enhancement, to gain access to additional school services and accommodations, to use recreationally and to sell as a street drug. In some countries, patients may receive additional tax or student loan benefits. Several researchers suggested that self-report rating measures are easily simulated by patients without ADHD. They concluded that no questionnaire has proved sufficiently robust against false positives. Some clinical factors that may suggest malingering during the ADHD assessment are highlighted and some available tests to detect malingering are discussed.

The pass-through of excise taxes to market prices of heated tobacco products (HTPs) and cigarettes: a cross-country analysis.

The market for heated tobacco products (HTPs) has grown markedly in recent years, and many governments have started to tax HTPs to regulate their use. To evaluate the impacts of HTP taxes on tobacco use behaviors and health consequences, we first need to assess if they effectively raise HTP prices in a tax system that also taxes cigarettes. This study jointly evaluates the pass-through of taxes to prices of HTPs and cigarettes. We use a unique database on statutory HTP and cigarette taxes and retail prices of Marlboro-branded heated tobacco units and cigarettes from 2014 to 2021, developed by the Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, in all countries where HTPs are sold. To estimate the pass-through of taxes to prices, we employ a seemingly unrelated regressions model. We also use an event study to test the impact of introducing HTPs to cigarette markets, as well as amending tax codes to include HTPs, on prices and price gaps. Currently, the debate over whether HTPs should be taxed in comparison with cigarettes considers their potential harm reduction impact, and most countries tax HTPs at much lower rates than cigarettes in order to keep HTP prices lower than cigarette prices. However, the direct pass-through rate of HTP taxes to prices is several times smaller than that of cigarettes, resulting in very similar unit prices of HTPs and cigarettes. Further, while cigarette taxes are over-shifted to cigarette prices, HTP taxes are under-shifted to HTP prices, suggesting that tax gaps between the two products does not translate to price gaps. The results overall suggest that the lower taxes on HTPs do not lead to lower prices as compared to cigarettes and are unlikely to incentivize cigarette smokers to transition to HTPS for lower costs. Under this scenario, taxing both products equivalently could be an option to raise additional tax revenue.

Measurement of the Threatened Biodiversity Existence Value Output: Application of the Refined System of Environmental-Economic Accounting in the Pinus pinea Forests of Andalusia, Spain

Are we able to determine the existence value output generated for society through the preservation of wild species threatened with extinction? In this article we defend the theory that the service of preserving threatened species with risk of extinction is an existence value output with a hidden transaction price if it can be established that there are consumer or state willingness to pay an additional tax above the government total cost to avoid an increase in one threatened species in relation to the number recorded at the opening of the accounting period. This output is estimated by adding the total cost and the additional consumer tax which the consumers state that they are willing to pay through a choice experiment survey. Our refined monetary System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (rSEEA) extends the existence value output concept and valuation principles recommended by the United Nations. In this paper, this rSEEA was applied to Pinus pinea forests in protected as well as non-protected areas of Andalusia, Spain in 2010. The results show that the net value added from protected areas is 40% higher than that from non-protected areas. It is incidental that the environmental benefits in both areas coincide.