Addition Of Phosphate Research Articles

Corrigendum: Enhanced electrochemical properties of catalyst by phosphorous addition for direct urea fuel cell

Corrigendum: Enhanced electrochemical properties of catalyst by phosphorous addition for direct urea fuel cell

Determination of indoxyl sulfate by spectrofluorimetric method in human plasma through extraction with deep eutectic solvent

A rapid and efficient analytical method was established to quantify indoxyl sulfate (IS) in plasma through extraction technique with a deep eutectic solvent (DES) and spectrofluorimetric method. DES (choline chloride: urea) was mixed with plasma samples for the extraction of IS, followed by the addition of dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4) solution to form an aqueous two-phase system. The fluorescence intensity of IS which was first extracted to the DES-rich-phase and then back-extracted into the salt-rich-phase, was measured by spectrofluorimetric method. Some key factors such as pH, centrifugation speed and time, the volume ratio of DES/salt, and salt concentration were optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the suggested method had a dynamic range between 20 and 160 µg/mL with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.99. Precision (relative standard deviation) was less than 15% and accuracy (% relative recovery) was ± 15% at the nominal concentration level. In addition, results showed that IS levels in real samples were higher than 40 µg/mL which was compatible with reported IS levels in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. Overall, all the results reflect the fact that the presented analytical method can potentially be used for the determination of IS in real plasma samples.

Phosphate additives promote humic acid carbon and nitrogen skeleton formation by regulating precursors and composting bacterial communities

This study aimed to compare the effect of different phosphate additives including superphosphate (CP) and MP [Mg(OH)2 + H3PO4] on nitrogen conversion, humus fractions formation and bacterial community in food waste compost. The results showed the ratio of humic acid nitrogen in total nitrogen (HA-N/TN) in CP increased by 49 %. Ammonium nitrogen accumulation was increased by 75 % (CP) and 44 % (MP). Spectroscopic techniques proved that phosphate addition facilitated the formation of complex structures in HA. CP enhanced the dominance of Saccharomonospora, while Thermobifida and Bacillus were improved in MP. Structural equation modeling and network analysis demonstrated that ammonium nitrogen can be converted to HA-N and has positive effects on bacterial composition, reducing sugars and amino acids, especially in CP with more clustered network and synergic bacterial interactions. Therefore, the addition of phosphate provides a new idea to regulate the retained nitrogen toward humification in composting.

Chemical stability and reactivity of electrochemically grown manganese oxide films

The fundamental scientific challenge in fully harnessing the potential of manganese oxide compounds lies in understanding the interplay between microstructure, surface properties, and electrochemical reactivity. In this study, manganese oxides were synthesized via two distinct methods: electrodeposition trough anodic oxidation of Mn2+ in solution and direct anodic oxidation of metallic Mn. Employing electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance measurements under flow conditions, the deposited compounds were successfully identified as function of the applied anodic potentials, revealing a transition from Mn3O4 to Mn2O3. Furthermore, the MnO → Mn(OH)2 conversion was determined to be a critical step in the degradation process of manganese oxides. For the anodic oxidation process, the mere alkaline "pH effect" (solid product formation predicted from Pourbaix Diagram) was demonstrated to be insufficient to form a protective oxide/hydroxide layer on top of metallic Mn. Indeed, the addition of phosphate proved necessary for achieving this protective passive layer formation, particularly in pH 12.0 Na3PO4 electrolyte solution. Potentiostatic growth in the presence of phosphates demonstrated the progressive stabilization of the protective layer consisting of a mix of manganese oxide, hydroxide, and phosphate, as confirmed by Raman and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy. To provide a comprehensive framework for our findings, a revised Pourbaix Diagram for the Mn-H2O-PO43− system is proposed and discussed.

Strigolactones Might Regulate Ovule Development after Fertilization in Xanthoceras sorbifolium.

Strigolactones (SLs) were recently defined as a novel class of plant hormones that act as key regulators of diverse developmental processes and environmental responses. Much research has focused on SL biosynthesis and signaling in roots and shoots, but little is known about whether SLs are produced in early developing seeds and about their roles in ovule development after fertilization. This study revealed that the fertilized ovules and early developing pericarp in Xanthoceras sorbifolium produced minute amounts of two strigolactones: 5-deoxystrigol and strigol. Their content decreased in the plants with the addition of exogenous phosphate (Pi) compared to those without the Pi treatment. The exogenous application of an SL analog (GR24) and a specific inhibitor of SL biosynthesis (TIS108) affected early seed development and fruit set. In the Xanthoceras genome, we identified 69 potential homologs of genes involved in SL biological synthesis and signaling. Using RNA-seq to characterize the expression of these genes in the fertilized ovules, 37 genes were found to express differently in the fertilized ovules that were aborting compared to the normally developing ovules. A transcriptome analysis also revealed that in normally developing ovules after fertilization, 12 potential invertase genes were actively expressed. Hexoses (glucose and fructose) accumulated at high concentrations in normally developing ovules during syncytial endosperm development. In contrast, a low ratio of hexose and sucrose levels was detected in aborting ovules with a high strigolactone content. XsD14 virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) increased the hexose content in fertilized ovules and induced the proliferation of endosperm free nuclei, thereby promoting early seed development and fruit set. We propose that the crosstalk between sugar and strigolactone signals may be an important part of a system that accurately regulates the abortion of ovules after fertilization. This study is useful for understanding the mechanisms underlying ovule abortion, which will serve as a guide for genetic or chemical approaches to promote seed yield in Xanthoceras.

Dietary Phosphate Educational Materials for Pediatric Chronic Kidney Disease: Are Confused Messages Reducing Their Impact?

ObjectiveThis study aimed to review the quality and content of phosphate educational materials used in pediatric chronic kidney disease. MethodsThe quality of text-based pediatric phosphate educational materials was assessed using validated instruments for health literacy demands (Suitability Assessment of Materials [SAM] and Patient Education Material Assessment Tool [PEMAT-P]) and readability (Flesch Reading Ease [FRE] and Flesch-Kincaid [FK] Grade Level). Codes were inductively derived to analyse format, appearance, target audience, resource type and content, aiming for an intercoder reliability (ICR) >80%. The content was compared to Paediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT) recommendations. ResultsSixty-five phosphate educational materials were obtained, 37 were pediatric-focused including 28 text-based. Thirty-two percent of text-based materials were directed at caregivers, 25% children and 43% unspecified. Most (75%) included a production date with 75% produced >2 years ago. The median FRE test-score was 68.2 (interquartile range [IQR] 61.1-75.3) and FK Grade Level 5.6 (IQR 4.5-7.7). Using SAM, 54% rated “superior” (≥70), 38% “adequate” (40-69) and 8% “not suitable” (≤39). Low scoring materials lacked a summary (12%), cover graphics (35%) or included irrelevant illustrations (50%). PEMAT-P scores were 70% (IQR 50-82) for understandability and 50% (IQR 33-67) for actionability. An ICR of 87% was achieved. Over half limited foods in agreement with PRNT (including 89% suggesting avoiding phosphate additives). Recommendations conflicting with PRNT included reducing legumes and wholegrains. Over a third contained inaccuracies and over two thirds included no practical advice. ConclusionsText-based pediatric phosphate educational materials are pitched at an appropriate level for caregivers, but this may be too high for children under 10 years. The inclusion of relevant illustrations may improve this. Three quarters of materials scored low for actionability. The advice does not always align with the PRNT, which (together with the inaccuracies reported) could result in conflicting messages to patients and their families.

Synergy of phosphate and hyperthermophilic bio-drying reduces pollution of sludge bio-drying: Reducing ammonia emissions and heavy metal migration risk

Hyperthermophilic bio-drying has stronger organic matter degradation and drying ability than the conventional bio-drying. However, ammonia emissions during the hyperthermophilic bio-drying are significantly higher than those during the conventional bio-drying process due to the higher temperature and pH value. Phosphate has been reported to reduce ammonia emissions during composting. Meanwhile, both the degradation of organic matter and the addition of phosphate buffer can promote the formation of EPS. EPS exhibits strong passivation and adsorption properties for heavy metals and organic pollutants, thus positively impacting the control of pollution in bio-drying products. Furthermore, the formation of EPS and the risk of the migration of heavy metals during hyperthermophilic bio-drying have not been reported. According to the results, compared to conventional bio-drying, the hyperthermophilic bio-drying significantly increased the yield of EPS and generated more active groups, reducing the migration risk of Cu, Zn, Cr, Pb, Cd, As, and Ni. The comprehensive potential ecological risk was reduced by 29.71%, which was higher than the reduction achieved by conventional bio-drying (13.81%). The addition of phosphate significantly reduced the ammonia emissions from the hyperthermophilic bio-drying and retained more nitrogen. Meanwhile, it promoted the formation of EPS and the enrichment of active groups, further reducing the migration risk of heavy metals. Moreover, the addition of phosphate buffer further reduced the comprehensive potential ecological risk of the products obtained from.

Flame Retardant Additives in Polylactic Acid (PLA) Photopolymer Resin for 3D Printing Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Digital light processing (DLP) technology has been developed based on stereolithography (SLA) 3D-printing principle. The biodegradable and low-cost polylactic-acid (PLA) has so far been used as polymeric material for photopolymer resin in SLA and DLP. To achieve functional SLA-processed product, the properties of such PLA has been improved, with the aim to make it flame retardant, less viscous, and having light transmittance characteristics. In this study, the liquid raw PLA photopolymer was changed by adding different contents of Ammonium Phosphate (APP), melamine cyanurate (MCA), Aluminum Tri-hydroxide (Al2O3) and Nano-silicon dioxide (SiO2) additives. The solid PLA nanocomposite specimens were printed by using DLP device according to the standard geometry for burning test UL-94 to evaluate its flame-retardant property. In addition, the printing product and residue after burning test was analyzed for their morphological characteristic by using SEM. The results showed that the low weight fraction of MCA showed excellent performance. PLA/MCA successfully kept green body form until the sintering temperature of stainless steel was achieved. It can become a reference for application DLP 3D printing products in the casting and sintering process.

Enhancing Hygiene and Technical Properties of Ceramic Tiles through Moroccan Phosphate Additives

This study offers a simple solution to manufacture ceramic tiles with good technical and hygienic properties. This solution consists of integrating the phosphate product from Morocco in the industrial formulation of ceramic tiles, to produce materials in compliance with the criterion of the ISO standard. For phosphate products, three grades were studied: HG-high grade, MG-medium grade, and LG-low grade. The results show that for materials containing these additives, there is both an effect of the concentration and type of additive on technical and hygienic properties. The mechanical property is improved when the incorporated component was richer in P2O5. Only the use of HG-high grade and MG-medium grade as an additive at least 15% makes it possible to satisfy the mechanical requirement. The anti-biofilm effect of natural phosphate (PN) as an additive to manufacture ceramic tiles is confirmed, it may prevent bio adhesion and biofilm formation at almost 75% for the HG-high grade and MG-medium grade. This solution could interest professionals and all users who care about the state of hygiene of their ceramic materials sensible to the formation of biofilm, like orthopaedic implants, swimming pool tile…etc.

Influence of Electrical Discharge Texturing Upon Cooling Performance of a Downward-Faced Copper Surface

Enhancement of quenching heat transfer at film boing regime is one of the primary concerns in handling decay heat produced by downward-faced core catcher units in the nuclear industry. The present study focused on the enhancement of the quenching rate of a hemispherical downward-facing copper sample by the modification of the substrate surface using electrical discharge machining (EDM) texturing and the addition of trisodium phosphate (TSP) to the coolant. All quenching tests were carried out at 500 °C under atmospheric pressure. The influence of surface texturing and fluid additives on quenching rate and bubble dynamics has been investigated using cooling curves and visualization studies. The EDM textured boiling surface showed an improved cooling performance by the significant reduction in the quenching time compared to the bare surface. TSP added with deionized (DI) water showed an enhancement in the quenching rate compared to DI water. EDM surface with TSP exhibits better cooling performance compared to bare surface and DI water by yielding 75% enhancement in the overall cooling rate. Visualization studies were conducted to investigate the bubble dynamics during the quenching phenomenon under the influence of EDM textured surface and TSP.

Quality of Sperm Simmental Bulls and Success of Artificial Insemination with the Addition of Nanocalcium Phosphate in Tris Aminomethane Egg Yolk Diluent Using Semen Storage Ampoules from Nanocalcium Silicophosphate Biomaterials

Quality of Sperm Simmental Bulls and Success of Artificial Insemination with the Addition of Nanocalcium Phosphate in Tris Aminomethane Egg Yolk Diluent Using Semen Storage Ampoules from Nanocalcium Silicophosphate Biomaterials

Structural and mechanical behavior of type-I collagen fibrils in presence of induced electrostatic interactions through ionic liquids

Tuning the self-assembly of collagen has broad applications in the biomedical field owing to their desired biological performance as collagenous materials with tunable functionalities can further determine cellular responses. In this work, an attempt has been made to tune the self-assembly of collagen using ionic liquids, viz., imidazolium chloride (IC) and choline dihydrogen phosphate (CDHP) at its physiological pH, followed by probing assembled systems using various characterization methods. Turbidity measurements of fibrillar networks were performed to ascertain the rate of fibril formation in addition of imidazolium chloride and choline dihydrogen phosphate to collagen at physiological pH. Morphological changes were examined using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), binding affinities were measured by Microscale Thermophoresis (MST), in addition to, changes in the shear viscosity, mechanical strength of collagen fibrils when interacted with imidazolium and choline based ILs were carried out using rotational rheometer and Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) measurements. Experimental result depicts that CDHP imparts better crosslinking as well as mechanical strength compare to IC, which is already known for destabilizing the triple helix structure is inhibiting the fibril formation. This self-assembled, ionic-liquid treated collagen-fibrillar system would accelerate various force modulated fibrillar network study, for mimicking the ECM and tissue engineering application.

Biomimetic-induced hydroxyapatite for rebar corrosion mitigation in self-healing concrete beam

The corrosion of embedded rebar in self-healing concrete is seldom reported on and deserves more intensive attention. This study focuses on utilizing biomimetic-induced hydroxyapatite as a means of achieving autonomous self-healing to target issues associated with rebar corrosion in concrete structures. A comprehensive evaluation of the synthesized supramolecular hydrogel as self-healing agent carrier, the simulated self-healing products, and the reinforcement corrosion behaviour in the upscaled self-healing concrete beams was conducted. Results show that the synthesized 2,6-bis [N-(carboxyethyl carbonyl)amino] pyridine (DAP) hydrogel qualifies as a healing agent carrier with high loading capacity and intelligent response after cracking. The feasibility of hydroxyapatite formation via a combination of phosphate ions released by the supramolecular hydrogel and the available calcium ions leached by the cement matrix has been substantiated. The addition of phosphate as the healing agent is effective in mitigating the corrosion of rebar in the designed self-healing concrete beam. It can be explained by the synergistic effect of surface adsorption of chloride ions by the formed hydroxyapatite and the corrosion inhibitor role of the released phosphate.

Mock-up performance evaluation study for crack reduction of blast furnace slag powder concrete mixed with expansive and swelling admixtures

In this study, the drying shrinkage and crack reduction characteristics of blast furnace slag concrete mixed with expansive and swelling admixtures were investigated. Basic performance experiments were conducted using different mixtures of ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), with calcium sulfoaluminate as the expansive admixture and bentonite and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) as swelling admixtures. Bentonite outperformed HPMC as a swelling admixture. Specimens were then prepared for mock-up tests to evaluate the drying shrinkage of blast furnace slag concrete with different combinations of bentonite, a hardening accelerator, and a self-healing agent. The addition of bentonite and calcium phosphate as a self-healing agent in small quantities reduced the drying shrinkage of the specimens, thereby reducing cracks. The cement mixture composed of 30% GGBS, 1% bentonite, and 1% calcium phosphate (30-E1-I1) showed the optimal performance among the specimens. Further, crack monitoring was performed in concrete made with ordinary Portland cement and optimal mixture 30-E1-I1. No cracks were observed for the optimal mixture. This shows that GGBS concrete can be used in practical and field applications, subject to mid- and long-term tests for cracking.

Functional Groups Dominate Aboveground Net Primary Production under Long-Term Nutrient Additions in a Tibetan Alpine Meadow

Anthropogenic nutrient additions are influencing the structure and function of alpine grassland ecosystems. However, the underlying mechanisms of the direct and indirect effects of nutrient additions on aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) are not well understood. In this study, we conducted an eight-year field experiment to explore the ecological consequences of nitrogen (N) and/or phosphorous (P) additions on the northern Tibetan Plateau. ANPP, species diversity, functional diversity, and functional groups were used to assess species’ responses to increasing nutrients. Our results showed that nutrient additions significantly increased ANPP due to the release in nutrient limitations. Although N addition had a significant effect on species richness and functional richness, and P and N + P additions altered functional diversity, it was functional groups rather than biodiversity that drove changes in ANPP in the indirect pathways. We identified the important roles of N and P additions in begetting the dominance of grasses and forbs, respectively. The study highlights that the shift of functional groups should be taken into consideration to better predict the structure, function, and biodiversity–ANPP relationship in grasslands, particularly under future multifaceted global change.

Potassium Ions Decrease Mitochondrial Matrix pH: Implications for ATP Production and Reactive Oxygen Species Generation.

Potassium (K+) is the most abundant cation in the cytosol and is maintained at high concentrations within the mitochondrial matrix through potassium channels. However, many effects of K+ at such high concentrations on mitochondria and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study aims to elucidate these effects and mechanisms by employing fluorescence imaging techniques to distinguish and precisely measure signals inside and outside the mitochondria. We stained the mitochondrial matrix with fluorescent dyes sensitive to K+, pH, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and membrane potential in plasma membrane-permeabilized C6 cells and isolated mitochondria from C6 cells. Fluorescence microscopy facilitated the accurate measurement of fluorescence intensity inside and outside the matrix. Increasing extramitochondrial K+ concentration from 2 mM to 127 mM led to a reduction in matrix pH and a decrease in the generation of highly reactive ROS. In addition, elevated K+ levels electrically polarized the inner membrane of the mitochondria and promoted efficient ATP synthesis via FoF1-ATPase. Introducing protons (H+) into the matrix through phosphate addition led to further mitochondrial polarization, and this effect was more pronounced in the presence of K+. K+ at high concentrations, reaching sub-hundred millimolar levels, increased H+ concentration within the matrix, suppressing ROS generation and boosting ATP synthesis. Although this study does not elucidate the role of specific types of potassium channels in mitochondria, it does suggest that mitochondrial K+ plays a beneficial role in maintaining cellular health.

Enhancing the color of inorganic yellow pigments using yellow fluorescent materials: The case of BiVO4, PbCrO4/(Y,Gd)AG:Ce3+, Sr2SiO4:Eu2+

This paper presents a novel approach to enhancing the color of inorganic yellow pigments using yellow fluorescent materials. The results demonstrate that the inclusion of phosphor leads to a significant improvement in various color attributes. Specifically, the addition of 15 %–20 % phosphor of YAG:Ce3+, (Sr,Ba)2SiO4:Eu2+ or YAG:Ce3+,Gd3+ in BiVO4 or PbCrO4 increases the brightness value (L*) by 5.0 %–8.7 %, the yellowness value (b*) by 4.2 %–9.2 %, and the color saturation value (C*) by 4.1 %–8.7 %. Furthermore, the reflections in the yellow region show a notable increase of 13.7 %–22.1 %, while remaining relatively low in the blue region (the complementary color of yellow), at approximately 10 %. This phenomenon can be attributed to the strong yellow emission performance of phosphor and the interesting synergistic effect between phosphor and pigment. The strong blue absorption of conventional pigment powder compensates for the inherent lack of blue absorption in phosphor alone, thereby maintaining a low reflectivity for the complementary color (blue) of yellow. Moreover, the fluorescence lifetime of yellow substantially increases with the addition of phosphor in the mixed material. This observation aligns with the quantitative relationship between reabsorption and fluorescence lifetime, suggesting widespread reabsorption of yellow emission. This finding supports our hypothesis that positive synergies occur within the mixed layer. In summary, incorporating a small amount of phosphor into conventional pigments effectively enhances the coloring effect of the pigments.

Comparative Assessment of Ethanol Production from Six Typical German Waste Baked Products

AbstractThis study investigates the potential for bioethanol production of six types of typical German leftover baked products: bread rolls, pretzel rolls, fine rye bread, white bread, pastry, and cream cakes. The experimental setup consisted of two experiments—one as a control and another with the addition of diammonium phosphate (DAP) to the mash. In terms of monosaccharide concentration at 30% dry matter (DM), white bread mash exhibited the highest level at 251.5 g/L, while cream cakes mash had the lowest at 186 g/L. The highest ethanol production occurred after 96 h of fermentation with rye bread, yielding 78.4 g/L. In contrast, despite having the highest monosaccharide levels, white bread produced only 21.5 g/L of ethanol after 96 h. The addition of DAP accelerated monosaccharide consumption in all baked products, with cream cakes completing the process in just 24 h. Bread rolls, pretzel rolls, pastry, and white bread fermentations finished within 72 h. Ethanol yields significantly increased in three DAP samples, with pretzel rolls yielding the highest ethanol concentration at 98.5 g/L, followed by white bread with 90.6 g/L, and bread rolls with 87.7 g/L. DAP had a substantial impact on all samples, reducing fermentation time and/or increasing ethanol yield. This effect was particularly pronounced with white bread, where it improved conversion efficiency from 17 to 72%, resulting in 90.6 g/L of ethanol. These results demonstrate that waste baked products hold substantial potential for bioethanol production, and this potential can be further enhanced through the addition of DAP. Graphical Abstract

Bioethanol production from organosolv treated beech wood chips obtained at pilot scale

Second generation bioethanol represents an important biofuel, but innovations on biomass pre-treatment and fermentation are needed to improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness in its production. In this work, beech wood chips were treated using an acetone-based organosolv fractionation process at pilot scale, resulting in the isolation of lignin, a high-purity cellulosic pulp and a liquid stream containing hemicellulose sugars. The hemicellulose stream (C5 stream) contained xylose as major sugar and also contained fermentation inhibitors such as furanics, organic acids and phenolics. The cellulosic pulp was enzymatically hydrolysed producing a glucose-rich stream (C6 stream). These streams were used as fermentation substrates by the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Spathaspora passalidarum, in separate cultures. Addition of ammonium phosphate or of yeast extract and peptone (YP) as nitrogen sources improved yeast growth. The C6 stream was readily fermentable. When at a sugar concentration of 192 g L−1 and supplemented with YP, the ethanol titre reached 91 g L−1, with a yield of 0.49 g ethanol per g consumed sugars. The C5 stream required detoxification to achieve fermentability. In detoxified C5 stream, S. passalidarum produced 0.46 g ethanol per gram consumed sugars. Fermentation of the resulting streams at 10-L scale confirmed the results obtained at laboratory scale. As alternative approach, sequential fermentation of the C5 stream by S. passalidarum followed by C6 stream addition and inoculation with S. cerevisiae resulted in almost complete sugar utilization and an ethanol yield of 0.41 g per gram consumed sugar albeit with a lower ethanol productivity.

Rapid and facile detection of PBTC antiscalant using functionalized polystyrene nanoparticles and latex agglutination

Organophosphate-based compounds, particularly 2-phosphonobutane-1,2,4-tricarboxylic acid (PBTC), have been crucial in circulating cooling systems and wastewater treatments as corrosion inhibitors preventing scale deposits in industrial facilities. Employing the reagent within its optimum concentration range is essential for effective performance, minimizing costs and environmental impacts. However, measuring PBTC separately can be challenging due to its functional groups’ similarity to other common molecules found in natural water, necessitating complex procedures. In this study, amine-functionalized polystyrene (PS) latex nanoparticles were synthesized through emulsifier-free emulsion polymerization and utilized as nanosorbents for PBTC detection via a straightforward latex agglutination method. This phenomenon is facilitated by electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions between the positively charged layers on the particle’s surface and the negatively charged PBTC molecules. The pH and concentration of the PBTC solution are key factors influencing the adsorption behavior and capacity of the functionalized latex particles. A graphical representation of aggregation domains, dependent on both PBTC concentration and pH, was created. This map serves as an effective tool for detecting PBTC concentration. The resulting particles show great promise for monitoring the concentration range of phosphate additives in water, offering a simple, rapid detection process with low costs and reduced chemical and equipment requirements.