Addition Of Cellulose Nanofibers Research Articles

Effect of Cellulose-Nanofiber-Controlled Emulsion Size on Skin Delivery by Essence

Cellulose nanofibers were added to microemulsion and nanoemulsion to evaluate their effect on human skin delivery. A decrease in the size of the emulsion during the nanoemulsification using a high-pressure homogenizer, as well as the addition of cellulose nanofibers, increased the efficiency of skin delivery. Following the addition of the cellulose nanofibers, the nanoemulsification treatment using the high-pressure homogenizer was confirmed as the most effective for skin delivery. BRBecause a cosmetic essence undiluted solution that adjusts the size of the emulsion by adding cellulose nanofiber, as a result of a skin clinical test, the product treated with a high-pressure homogenizer (SA2) and cellulose nanofiber were added than the product made with an emulsion using a conventional homomixer (SA1). In products SA3 and SA4, which was treated with the high-pressure homogenizer, following the addition of the cellulose nanofibers, the amount of skin moisture was significantly effective.

The influence of the addition position of cellulose nanofibers on the crystalline and mechanical properties of carbon fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites

ABSTRACT The introduction of nanofillers into conventional microsized fiber-reinforced plastic composites has great potential to improve the fracture toughness and crystalline properties of composites, especially for semicrystalline thermoplastic polymers. Although the selective reinforcement is possible by nanofiller addition, the influence of the addition position of nanofillers on the mechanical properties and crystalline properties still has not been revealed. In this work, the cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) as the secondary filler were added (i) into a polypropylene (PP) matrix by a melt-mixing process and (ii) onto a carbon fiber (CF) surface by a dip-coating process in a CF-reinforced PP composite. By focusing on the transcrystals surrounding CFs, which enable improvement of the interfacial strength, the crystalline properties and mechanical properties were investigated through polarized optical microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and 3-point bending tests in this study. We revealed that (i) CNF addition into the PP matrix disturbed the transcrystallization surrounding CFs and that the mechanical properties slightly decreased. Conversely, (ii) CNF addition onto the CF surface promoted transcrystallization surrounding the CF, and the flexural yield strength and modulus significantly improved by a maximum of 30% and 63%, respectively.

Orally Disintegrating Tablet Manufacture via Direct Powder Compression Using Cellulose Nanofiber as a Functional Additive.

In recent years, orally disintegrating (OD) tablets have been continuously improved to increase efficacy. Herein, we focused on the benefits of cellulose nanofiber (CNF), a highly functional material, in OD tablet manufacturing. We studied its effects on the physical properties of tablets during manufacture. The analyzed tablet formulations included different content CNF (0-50%; 6 preparations), lactose hydrate, acetaminophen, and magnesium stearate (Mg-St). We measured the angles of repose and evaluated the flowability of the powder. Tablets were prepared on a tabletop and rotary tableting presses, whereafter their weight, drug content, hardness, friability, and disintegration time were evaluated. Although CNF addition slightly reduced powder flowability, continuous tableting was feasible via direct powder compression. Tablet hardness (~40 N) was comparable between CNF-containing (20%) tablets and those prepared with crystalline cellulose under 10 kN compression force. Disintegration time (~30 s) was similar between CNF-supplemented tablets and those supplemented with low-substituted hydroxypropyl cellulose, crospovidone, or croscarmellose sodium. At higher CNF fractions, tablet hardness increased, while friability decreased. Adding ≥30% CNF prolonged the tablet disintegration time. To set the optimized manufacturing condition for ensuring the desired tablet physical properties, we created contour plots for evaluating the effects of CNF concentration and compression force on hardness and disintegration time. A CNF concentration of 10-20% and a compression force of 12-13 kN would allow for the preparation of tablets with a hardness ≥30 N and a disintegration time ≤60 s. Altogether, addition of CNF to the OD tablet formulation for direct powder compression enhanced hardness and disintegration.

Preparation and properties of paint prepared with nanofibrillated cellulose and waterborne epoxy resin

A new type of water-based paint was prepared with Salix nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), epoxy resin (E-51), and emulsified curing agent as raw materials. The mechanical blending of coated films was characterized. The mechanical properties and friction and wear properties of the coated film were tested. Microstructure was studied by scanning electron and transmission electron microscopies, thermogravimetric analysis, and other methods. The results showed that when the amount of NFC was 1.0%, the overall performance of the coated film was improved. Herein, the flexibility was 1 mm, the adhesion was 0, the hardness was 4 H, the wear value was 15 mg/100 r, the impact resistance was 49 cm, and the gloss was 85 Gs. The friction and wear coefficient of the composite coated film after the addition of cellulose nanofibers was reduced to 0.171, which was 58.5% lower than that before the addition of cellulose nanofibers. The surface observation after abrasion indicated that the composite coated film mainly experienced abrasive wear.

The effects of cellulose nanofibers compounded in water-based undercoat paint on the discoloration and deterioration of painted wood products

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have many potentials as filler to improve the properties of the other materials. We have developed the novel paints containing CNFs, and which controlled the discoloration of wood products. To clarify the discoloration mechanism of wood panels using an undercoat paint containing CNFs, prepared by an integrated process from Cryptomeria japonica, the composites and films made of CNFs and acryl resin that was a raw material for the paints were prepared. Observation of the surface of the CNFs/acryl resin composite film by atomic force microscopy showed that the fibers and the resin were uniformly mixed. The composite film prevented light transmittance in the ultraviolet (UV) light region, as well as oxygen gas permeation. The permeability coefficient of the oxygen gas decreased to 60% with the addition of 1.5 wt% of CNFs to the acryl resin. The addition of CNFs also increased the breaking stress by approximately 1.5 times compared with the acryl resin film. Electron spin resonance (ESR) analysis after UV irradiation resulted in the lowest radical formation of a piece of wood wrapped in the CNFs/acryl resin composite compared with the acryl-coated specimen and the wood as it was. Therefore, the CNFs composite film shielded the UV rays and oxygen more effectively than the original acryl resin, making it difficult for these factors to reach the wood’s surface, and thus, perhaps suppressing the generation of radicals from the wood. These actions would suppress the production of coloring substances caused by the radicals, resulting in the suppression of discoloration. Furthermore, the increase in the film’s strength by the addition of CNFs would have enhanced the stability of overall the paints with a CNF-containing undercoat. These effects might have contributed not only to the prevention of discoloration but also to the prevention of the occurrence of minute cracks caused by various weather deterioration factors.

Intelligent hydrogel with both redox and thermo-response based on cellulose nanofiber for controlled drug delivery

The purpose of this study is to develop a hydrogel with temperature and redox response to control drug delivery. However, the strength of temperature sensitive N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) hydrogel is weak. Therefore, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) oxidized cellulose nanofiber (CNF) is introduced to improve this problem. The compressive strength of hydrogels increased by 360% after CNF addition. Meanwhile, N,N′-bis(acryloyl)cystamine (BACy) is introduced into the hydrogels as a cross-linker, imparting redox responsive properties to the hydrogels. Tumor therapeutic drugs are used as model drugs for in vitro release studies. The drug release rate of hydrogel is regulated by temperature and reducing environment. The maximum cumulative release rate of doxorubicin (DOX) is 39.56%, and the Berberine (BBR) is 99.50% after 60 h. The swelling and transparency of hydrogels showed dramatic changes in the range of 30–40 °C. Cytotoxicity experiments demonstrated that the hydrogel had almost no cytotoxicity.

Robust conductive organohydrogel strain sensors with wide range linear sensing, UV filtering, anti-freezing and water-retention properties

The potential application prospects of conductive hydrogel-based flexible sensors in many emerging electronic devices have prompted intensive research on flexible hydrogel strain sensors to meet the needs of different application scenarios. Herein, by simply immersing PVA organohydrogel compounded with cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and α-zirconium phosphate (α-ZrP) nanosheets in tannic acid (TA)/NaCl/water solvent, we prepared an organohydrogel strain sensor with excellent mechanical properties, anti-freezing and water-retention properties, transparency and UV filtration, and excellent strain sensing properties. The addition of CNFs and α-ZrP nanosheets could synergistically improve the mechanical properties of the organohydrogel and contributed to the enhancement of electrical conductivity with little effect on the transparency of the organohydrogel. TA was used as a physical cross-linking agent to further improve the strength of the organohydrogels (tensile strength of 5.37 MPa, toughness of 29.06 MJ/m3, elongation at break of 1057%) and as a UV filtering component to impart nearly 100% UV filtering performance to the organohydrogel. In addition, the organohydrogel exhibited an extremely wide linear (R2 = 0.995) sensing range (650%), high sensitivity (GF = 2.78) and excellent cycling stability as a strain sensor to detect human motion. This integrated high-performance TA-PVA/ZC organohydrogel shows great potential for flexible sensors.

Three-dimensional printing of cellulose nanofibers reinforced PHB/PCL/Fe3O4 magneto-responsive shape memory polymer composites with excellent mechanical properties

The combination of shape memory polymer composites and 3D printing technology provides novel opportunities for customized manufacturing and intelligentization of products. Here, we developed magneto-responsive shape memory polymer composites with well-balanced strengths and toughness by adding Fe 3 O 4 and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) to a poly-hydroxybutyrate/poly(ε-caprolactone) blend as functional particles and reinforcing component. The influences of Fe 3 O 4 and CNFs on the properties including micromorphology, and rheological, melting-crystallizational, thermomechanical, static mechanical, and magneto-responsive shape-memory behaviors were investigated. The results displayed that the PHB/PCL (80:20) composites with 10 wt% Fe 3 O 4 and 0.5 wt% CNFs had the optimal comprehensive mechanical and magneto-responsive shape-memory properties. Moreover, 3D printing tests found that the addition of CNFs and printing parameters were crucial for the mechanical and magneto-responsive shape-memory properties of the resulting products. Finally, the fabrication of a scaffold with excellent load-carrying performance and a magneto-responsive self-recovery snowflake demonstrated the application feasibility of our work. • CNFs improved the rheological and crystalline properties of the composites. • CNFs had good strengthening and toughening effects on composites with 10 wt% Fe 3 O 4 . • The magneto-responsive SME mechanism of the composites was proposed. • The final filament had good mechanical properties and magneto-responsive SME.

Cellulose Nanofibers Improve the Performance of Retrograded Starch/Pectin Microparticles for Colon-Specific Delivery of 5-ASA.

Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were employed as the nanoreinforcement of a retrograded starch/pectin (RS/P) excipient to optimize its colon-specific properties. Although starch retrogradation ranged from 32 to 73%, CNF addition discretely disfavored the RS yield. This result agrees with the finding that in situ CNF reduces the presence of the RS crystallinity pattern. A thermal analysis revealed that the contribution of pectin improves the thermal stability of the RS/CNF mixture. Through a complete factorial design, it was possible to optimize the spray-drying conditions to obtain powders with high yield (57%) and low moisture content (1.2%). The powders observed by Field Emission Gum Scanning Electron Microscopy (FEG-SEM) had 1–10 µm and a circular shape. The developed methodology allowed us to obtain 5-aminosalicilic acid-loaded microparticles with high encapsulation efficiency (16–98%) and drug loading (1.97–26.63%). The presence of CNF in RS/P samples was responsible for decreasing the burst effect of release in simulated gastric and duodenal media, allowing the greatest mass of drug to be targeted to the colon. Considering that spray-drying is a scalable process, widely used by the pharmaceutical industry, the results obtained indicate the potential of these microparticles as raw material for obtaining other dosage forms to deliver 5-ASA to the distal parts of gastrointestinal tract, affected by inflammatory bowel disease.

Release of papain incorporated in chitosan films reinforced with cellulose nanofibers

This research presents an active biodegradable packaging, where papain was incorporated into chitosan films reinforced with cellulose nanofibers (CNF). The objective of this study was to evaluate the properties of chitosan-film and CNF (0%, 4%, and 8%, w/w) incorporated with papain (0%, 2%, 6%, and 10%, w/w) and their release in the aqueous medium. Films were characterized by thickness, scanning electron microscopy, UV-Vis light transmission, X-ray diffraction, proteolytic activity, and kinetics of papain release. The papain impaired the dispersion of the CNF in the polymer matrix and increase crystallinity, however, the films show good transparency. The proteolytic activity of the films increased according to the concentration of papain. The CNF acted to control the release of papain. Films made with 2% papain and 4% CNF presented the lowest diffusion coefficient of the papain and may be used in packaging where the slow release of the active compound is required. Novelty impact statement This research presents an active biodegradable packaging, where papain was incorporated into chitosan films reinforced with cellulose nanofibers (CNF). The films developed showed good transparency and both the addition of CNF and papain resulted in increased crystallinity of chitosan films. The films with CNF presented the lowest diffusion coefficient of the papain and may be used in packaging where the slow release of the active compound is required.

Fabrication of Highly Interconnected Poly(ε-caprolactone)/cellulose Nanofiber Composite Foams by Microcellular Foaming and Leaching Processes.

In this study, microcellular polycaprolactone (PCL)/sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)/cellulose nanofiber (CNF) composite foams with highly interconnected porous structures were successfully fabricated by microcellular foaming and particle leaching processes. Supercritical CO2 (scCO2) served as a physical foaming agent, NaHCO3 was chosen as a chemical foaming agent and porogen, and CNF acted as a heterogeneous nucleating agent. The effect of scCO2, NaHCO3, and CNF on pore structures and the cofoaming mechanism were investigated. The results indicated that the addition of NaHCO3 and CNF increased the melt strength of the PCL matrix significantly. During the foaming process, the presence of CNF can form a rigid network due to the hydrogen bonding or mechanical entanglement between individual nanofibers, improving the nucleating efficiency but slowing down the cell growth rate. Additionally, due to the interaction of “soft” PCL matrix and “hard” domains in a PCL-based composite during the foaming process, together with the NaHCO3 leaching process, highly interconnected cell structures appeared. The obtained PCL/NaHCO3/CNF composite foams had a cell size of 15.8 μm and cell density of 6.3 × 107 cells/cm3, as well as an open-cell content of 82%. The reported strategy in this paper may provide the guidelines and data supports for the fabrication of a PCL-based porous scaffold.

Machinability Investigation for Cellulose Nanofiber-Reinforced Polymer Composite by Ultraprecision Diamond Turning

Cellulose nanofiber (CeNF)-reinforced polymer composites have wide potential applications in the manufacturing of optical and mechanical parts owing to their light weight, high mechanical strength, and optical transparency. In this study, CeNF-reinforced homogeneous polypropylene (PP-CeNF) was machined under various conditions by ultraprecision diamond turning, and the results were compared with those of pure PP without CeNF addition. The influence of CeNFs on material removal was investigated by examining the surface topography, chip morphology, cutting forces, and cutting temperature. It was found that the surface defects in pure PP cutting were surface tearing, while the surface defects of PP-CeNF were surface tearing and micro-holes induced by the pulling-outs of CeNFs. Surface tearing increased with cutting speed; pulling-outs of CeNFs were slightly affected by cutting speed but strongly dependent on the tool feed rate. Under a small tool feed rate, the surface roughness could be reduced to ∼10 nm Ra for PP-CeNF. The thermal effect was insignificant in the experiments, whereas the effect of strain rate-induced material hardening was dominant for both workpiece materials at a high cutting speed. This study helps to understand the mechanisms for ultraprecision cutting of CeNF-reinforced polymer composites and provides guidelines for improving the machined surface quality.

Biocomposites Based on Agar and Cellulose Nanofibers Prepared from Carrot Slag

In this study, the effect of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) prepared from carrot slag on the properties of agar biocomposite films is investigated. The composite film was characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), tensile test, fourier transforms infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The transmittance, mechanical properties and chemical structure of the composite film containing different CNF content (0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 phr based on agar) were studied. The UV-Vis showed that the transmittance of the film was decreased with increasing content of CNF. The FT-IR spectrum showed that the generation of hydrogen bonds leads to good interface bonding between Agar and CNF. Moreover, the performance of the bionanocomposite was improved by the addition of CNF. The composite containing 0.3 phr CNF results in a maximum tensile strength of 25.97 MPa. However, the tensile strength of the 0.5 phr CNF containing one is reduced to 24.42 MPa due to the agglomeration of CNF. The TEM shows that the diameter of CNF is 2.5 nm and the length is 18.20 nm. The usage of CNF obtained from carrot slag can not only recycle the waste from food industry, but also can be used as a reinforcing agent for preparing biodegradable composite film. It has potential uses in the development of biodegradable food packaging materials and biomedical applications.

Orange Juice Processing Waste as a Biopolymer Base for Biodegradable Film Formation Reinforced with Cellulose Nanofiber and Activated with Nettle Essential Oil

Concerns about environmental problems have led to the development of biodegradable packaging. Food wastes as a byproduct could be a good source for biopolymers. This study aimed to describe the physical and antimicrobial features of nano biocomposite films based on orange waste powder (OWP) with different concentrations of nettle essential oil (NEO) (1.5 and 3%) as an antibacterial agent and cellulose nanofiber (CNF) (3 and 6%) as a structural reinforcement. Thus, Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and differential scanning calorimetry analysis (DSC) were performed. Further, tensile strength, elongation at break, water vapor permeability, and antimicrobial properties were investigated. As a result, the addition of CNF improved the tensile strength and water barrier properties of the samples. Compared to the control film, adding NEO (3%) decreased the tensile strength but increased water vapor permeability and melting temperature. Moreover, the OWP-based film samples had an antimicrobial effect against five foodborne pathogens; this effect was increased considerably by enhancing the NEO concentration. In this regard, the maximum and minimum susceptibility was related to the Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica, respectively. In conclusion, orange waste could be used to produce an active film with improved physicomechanical and antibacterial properties by incorporating CNF and NEO.

Evaluation of the Mechanical and Physical Properties of Insulation Fiberboard with Cellulose Nanofibers

Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the lab-scale manufacturing process of insulation fiberboard (IFB) with cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and evaluate the effects of CNFs on the mechanical and physical properties of the IFB. Because the fabricated IFBs with CNFs had a homogeneous appearance, it was assumed that CNFs can be easily dispersed within IFB by adding them during the mixing stage of the wet process of wood-based board production. The results for the IFBs with CNFs revealed that the density and bending properties increased, while the thickness decreased with an increase in the CNF addition ratio. Furthermore, after the water absorption test, the weight change rates of the IFBs decreased, and the thickness swelling rates increased. Although the size of the specimens was different from the size in JIS A 5905 (Japan Standards Association 2014), the modulus of rupture (MOR) values of IFBs with a target density more than or equal to 0.20 g/cm3 were higher than the value of A-class IFB in the standard for all CNF addition ratios. In addition, lower thermal conductivity may be realized under similar MOR values by adding CNFs to IFB. On the other hand, to produce CNF-reinforced IFBs with target density/thickness, it is necessary to develop a method for decreasing the cohesive force derived from CNF aggregation and the compressive force originating from the water surface tension caused by the high water retention of CNFs.

ارزیابی ویژیگی های فیزیکی و مکانیکی نانو کامپوزیت ساخته شده از پلی وینیل الکل - نانو فیبر سلولوز و نانو اکسید سیلیکون

In this study, the effect of cellulose nanofibers and silicon nanoparticles on the properties of nanocomposites made with polyvinyl alcohol was studied and the physical, mechanical and morphological properties of nanocomposites were investigated. Samples were prepared by casting with different ratios of 0, 5 and 10% by weight. The morphology of nanocomposites was examined by scanning electron microscopy. Observations of water vapor permeability and water uptake by adding cellulose and nanoxide oxide nanofibers in pure polyvinyl alcohol control film and nanocomposite films with different compositions were significantly different from each other. Tensile strength of nanocomposites showed that increasing the amount of cellulose nanofibers and silicon nanoparticles increased the tensile strength and the percentage of elongation increased with the addition of cellulose nanofibers and silicon nanoparticles decreased. The results of the present study show that the addition of small amounts of nanocellulose fibers and silicon nanoparticles strengthens the polyvinyl alcohol polymer and improves the physical and mechanical properties and increases the performance of nanocomposites.

Improving the oxygen barrier of microcapsules using cellulose nanofibres

SummaryIn this study, the oxygen barrier and physical properties of two maltodextrin/gum Arabic (MD/GA) (3:1 w/w) microcapsules with dextrose equivalence (DE) 26 and 6 were assessed with or without the incorporation of cellulose nanofibres (CNF). The oxygen diffusion coefficient (Deff) was between 10.6 × 10−15 m2 s−1 and 17.3 × 10−15 m2 s−1 for all microcapsules. The addition of CNF improved the oxygen barrier of MD/GA microcapsules. The incorporation of CNF did not significantly impact Tg due to the low quantity of CNF present in the microcapsules. Wettability was higher in CNF incorporated microcapsules, and dispersibility was lower only for microcapsules with maltodextrin of DE 26. Spray‐dried microcapsules exhibited poor flowability and high cohesiveness due to the moisture content (2.0–2.5%) of the powders. The results suggest that incorporation of CNF can increase the oxygen barrier of MD/GA microcapsules which may lead to better oxidative stability of micronutrients incorporated in the microcapsules.

A New Ozonated Cassava Film with the Addition of Cellulose Nanofibres: Production and Characterization of Mechanical, Barrier and Functional Properties

In this study cassava starch modified by ozone technology and cellulose nanofibres were used to produce films. These nanocomposites were produced by casting technique using non-modified and ozonated cassava starches, glycerol and, water reinforced with cellulose nanofibres (NCF) at 1%, 2%, and 5%. Films were characterized in terms of mechanical, barrier and functional properties, morphology, opacity and the sealing ability. In general, ozonated cassava films result in increased mechanical properties, water vapour permeability, and hydrophilicity. The addition of cellulose nanofibres, in certain conditions, improved these properties due to the NCF dispersion in the polymeric matrix. However, the formation of agglomerates in higher concentrations (2% and 5%) was visible by SEM images. In specific, the addition of 1% of NCF to the 60 min ozonated film increased the Tensile Strength and the Young Modulus in ~ 117% and ~ 137%, respectively, and decreased the water vapour permeability in ~ 47%, in comparison to the non-modified film without NCF. In conclusion, the addition of NCF to ozonated cassava films improved their properties aiming specific application showing to be an interesting alternative for packaging industries in different areas.

Experimental Study of Polyvinyl Alcohol Nanocomposite Film Reinforced by Cellulose Nanofibers from Agave Cantala

This paper presents an experimental study of addition of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) extracted by the chemical-ultrasonication process from agave cantala leaf plants in the matrix of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Combining these materials produce the nanocomposite film with a thickness of 30 μm. The nanocomposite characteristic was investigated by the addition of CNF (0, 2, 5, 8, and 10 wt%) in PVA suspension (3 wt.%). PVA/CNF nanocomposite films were prepared by a casting solution method. The fibrillation of fibers to CNF was analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy. The nanocomposite film functional group's molecular chemical bond and structural analysis were tested using Fourier Transform Infrared and X-ray diffraction. The PVA/CNF nanocomposite film has significant advantages on the ultraviolet barrier, thermal stability tested by Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Thermogravimetric Analyzer, and tensile strength. Overall, the optimal addition of CNF is 8 wt.% in matrix, resulting in the highest crystallinity index (37.5%), the tensile strength and elongation at break was an increase of 79% and 138%, respectively. It has good absorbing ultraviolet rays (82.4%) and high thermal stability (365oC).

Potential of pure cellulose nanofibers as a denture base material.

A study was conducted to evaluate the basic mechanical properties of a pure cellulose nanofiber (CNF) material in comparison with a commercial denture base material (polymethylmethacrylate [PMMA] acrylic resin). The working hypothesis was that CNFs have potential for use as denture base materials. Pure CNF specimens fabricated under various conditions were examined. The flexural strength (FS) and flexural modulus (FM) of the specimens were measured using the three-point bending test, and the morphologies of the fractured surfaces were examined using scanning electron microscopy. Addition of tricalcium phosphate to dehydrate the CNFs did not improve their FS or FM. Conversely, substitution with methanol effectively improved the dehydration process and significantly affected the mechanical properties of the CNFs. As the degree of CNF defibration increased, the physical properties of the specimens improved significantly. However, addition of CNFs to PMMA liquid to create CNF-reinforced PMMA did not improve the mechanical properties. Pure CNF specimens fabricated under particular conditions had higher FS and FM values than the control, suggesting that CNFs have potential as a "petroleum-free" alternative to acrylic resin denture base materials. Pure CNF would be potentially useful as a denture base material, and presumably applicable to computer-aided design/manufacture (CAD/CAM).