Addition Of Bismuth Research Articles

Effect of bismuth additives on the thermophysical properties and thermodynamic functions of aluminum alloy AlFe5Si10

The temperature dependence of the heat capacity of the aluminum alloy AlFe5Si10 with bismuth was studied in the “cooling” mode. It is shown that with increasing temperature, the heat capacity, enthalpy and entropy of alloys increase, and the value of the Gibbs energy decreases. As the amount of bismuth in the initial alloy increases, the heat capacity, enthalpy and entropy of the AlFe5Si10 alloy decrease, while the value of the Gibbs energy increases.

Electrochemical and Spectroscopic Investigations of Bismuth(III) Pharmaceuticals with L-Glutathione

Due to the importance of L-cysteine in the human system, the interaction of metals with this amino acid are worthy of investigation by various methods. In this laboratory1, we have investigated the interaction of bismuth(III) compounds with L-cysteine by both cyclic voltammetry and UV-VIS spectroscopy in an attempt to understand the role of bismuth in treating gastrointestinal maladies.2 The addition of bismuth(III) compounds to solutions of L-cysteine causes a negative potential shift for bismuth(III) reduction as an indication of complex formation between bismuth(III) and L-cysteine. This interaction is also evident by the appearance of a UV-VIS spectroscopic band at 340 nm (Bi-sulfur bond). Even at low pH values (pH 1.0), electrochemical studies show evidence of some kind of interaction even when there is no 340 nm band. These investigations have been conducted at pH 1.00 and 3.00 to simulate conditions in the human stomach and at pH 7.40 MOPS [(3-N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid] to simulate general physiological conditions, in particular the intestinal tract. Recent work has involved extension of this work to L-glutathione, a tripeptide incorporating L-cysteine, under similar conditions. As might be expected, these interactions are considerably more complicated than those involving L-cysteine. As an example, there is a considerable positive potential shift for the reduction of bismuth(III) citrate in the presence of L-glutathione on the first and second voltammetric sweeps at gold and glassy carbon electrodes. This behavior evidently reflects the rather long (several seconds) time required for the re-formation of the bismuth complex with L-glutathione after its reductive ligand (L-glutathione) loss during bismuth(III) reduction on the first sweep. In addition, there is evidence of a film buildup on the electrode surface as observed by peak current increases during multiple potential sweeps. These observations are planned for inclusion in this symposium presentation.References T. Cheek and D. Peña, J. Electrochem. Soc., 167, 155522 (2020)Li, R. Wang, and H. Sun, Acc. Chem. Res., 52, 216 (2019).

Effect of doping on the morphology of cerium molybdate: A mechanistic approach towards efficient energy storage and sustainable environmental mitigation through heterogeneous photocatalysis

In this paper, we describe the synthesis of cerium molybdate (Ce2(MoO4)3) and different compositions of Bi-doped cerium molybdate (Ce2-xBix(MoO4)3) where x = 0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.07, and 0.09, through simple co-precipitation method. The synthesized materials were optically, structurally, and morphologically characterized by various sophisticated techniques, including UV–visible, FTIR, Raman, PXRD, BET, and SEM-EDX. Upon addition of bismuth, the optical band gaps are reduced from 3.35 eV (Ce2(MoO4)3) to 2.83 eV Ce1.93Bi0.07(MoO4)3. The charge storage potential and AC conductivity of the synthesized materials were investigated through dielectric studies where the dielectric constant increased by increasing dopant concentration up to 7 %. At 20 Hz, Ce1.93Bi0.07(MoO4)3 showed a significantly greater dielectric constant (3.597 × 106) compared to undoped Ce2(MoO4)3 (3.262 × 105). Similarly, the AC conductivity of Ce1.93Bi0.07(MoO4)3 increased up to 4.758 S m−1 compared to the undoped Ce2(MoO4)3 (2.270 S m−1) at 20 MHz. The photocatalytic efficiency was investigated against diclofenac potassium, which also considerably improved by increasing bismuth content. The maximum photodegradation efficiency of 87.9 % was observed for Ce1.93Bi0.07(MoO4)3 in 180 min under UV light irradiation at optimized conditions (pH = 4, catalyst dosage = 20 mg, and initial concentration of drug = 5 mg L−1). The photocatalytic reaction followed pseudo-first-order kinetics with a rate constant of 0.0108 min−1 with stability up to five successive runs of photocatalytic activity indicating its good recyclability. These findings suggest that Bi-doped cerium molybdate could be used as a promising material for photocatalysis and energy storage devices.

Effect of Bismuth Content and Heating Rate on MnS Inclusions in Free-Cutting Steel

In this paper, the influence of bismuth content and heating rate on the morphology of MnS inclusions in bismuth-containing free-cutting steel during heating was investigated through in situ observation experiments and 3D electrolytic corrosion experiments. By observing the microscopic morphology of inclusions in the original sample, it was found that MnS inclusions in the sample were rod-shaped, spherical, irregular, small in size, and mostly clustered at the grain boundary in the form of chains and divergences. With the addition of bismuth, MnS inclusions of a larger size appear in the steel, and the inclusions distributed at grain boundaries are also reduced. When bismuth (0.010~0.020%) is added to the steel, MnS is mainly spherical and uniformly dispersed in the steel matrix. If the bismuth content is too high, the inclusions aggregate. Through in situ observations of the inclusions in the sample, it was found that the addition of bismuth in the heating process delays the appearance of ferrite grain boundaries and contributes to the spheroidization of MnS inclusions. Mn and S elements can fully diffuse slowly in the matrix with a heating rate below 1 °C/s and a long holding time (300 s), which provides the possibility for the spheroidization of MnS inclusions.

Influence of bismuth addition on the physical and mechanical properties of low silver/lead-free Sn-Ag-Cu solder

The Sn–Ag–Cu (SAC) solders with low Ag content have been identified as promising candidates to replace the traditional Sn–Pb solder for flip-chip interconnects. This study examines the impact of incorporating Bi element on the microstructure, thermal behavior, and mechanical performance of low-silver-content Sn-1.5Ag-0.7Cu (SAC157) solder alloy. Besides using the conventional cross-sectioned microstructure image, X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and tensile stress- strain techniques were used to investigate the microstructure, thermal and mechanical properties after the addition of Bi, respectively. The results demonstrate that adding of Bi could refine the microstructure, optimize the thermal properties, and improve the tensile strength. Meanwhile, the ductility of the solder alloys reduced evidently in comparison to the Sn-1.5Ag-0.7Cu solder. From the microstructural analysis, 0.5 wt % Bi addition to SAC157 significantly enhanced the solid solution effect of Bi and refined β-Sn dendrite, as well as extended the eutectic area. Moreover, as the Bi addition increases to 5 wt %, finely dispersed bismuth precipitates within the β-Sn matrix, along with an enlarged eutectic area, lead to a remarkable enhancement in both ultimate tensile strength and yield strength. The electrical resistivity was characterized by the four-point probe technique. The results show that the electrical resistivity of Bi-modified SAC157 solder alloy decrease from 13.9 to 9.8 μΩ cm with the addition of 5 wt % Bi. These improvements can be attributed to the solid-solution and precipitation strengthening effects induced by the presence of bismuth. The results confirmed that the developed material is applicable as a potential high strength solder material in the context of advanced interconnecting applications.

Photodegradation of poly(ether-b-amide) catalyzed by bismuth radiopaque additive

Bismuth compounds (e.g., bismuth subcarbonate and bismuth oxychloride) are often used as radiopaque additives in poly(ether-b-amide) (PEBA) for medical catheter applications to enhance the visibility of the catheter tips during fluoroscopy-guided minimally invasive surgeries. However, there is an increasing number of reports on bismuth-based photocatalysts in other fields; yet the impact of bismuth additives on the shelf life of PEBA has never been studied/reported. In this work, the stability of PEBA containing bismuth subcarbonate was tested against PEBA containing other radiopaque additives, barium sulfate and tungsten, in several real-life-relevant lighting conditions. It was found bismuth-containing PEBA degraded significantly faster than these counterpart materials under light exposure conditions including indoor fluorescent light, daylight-simulating xenon light and high-flux visible blue light. The extents of photodegradation of bismuth-containing PEBA were characterized by optical imaging, tensile test, FTIR analysis, Raman imaging and ESR radical analysis. The results showed material surface cracking, material hardening, surface oxidation and radical concentration increase over the course of light exposure. Various environmental factors were studied; it was found PEBA containing bismuth not only degraded under lights containing UV light but also degraded under high intensity visible blue light. Larger doses of light exposure and higher environmental temperatures led to more material degradation. Additional shelf aging studies on light-exposed samples were performed, which showed latent aging with continued degradation shortening the shelf life after the initial light exposure, due to the formation of persistent free radicals. Finally, several design and use considerations were discussed in the context of catheter material photodegradation.

Synthesis of Pure and Bi‐Doped Lead Oxides via Microwave‐Assisted Solvothermal Methodology and their Electrochemical Characterization

AbstractIn this study, we have reported the synthesis of both pure and bismuth‐doped lead oxide nanoparticles using solvothermal method. The synthesized nanomaterials were analyzed to assess their structure, crystallinity, phase, maximum absorption and band gap. The electrical characteristics of the fabricated nanostructures were evaluated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electron impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The maximum specific capacitance and energy density, 349.96 F/g and 95.27 Wh/g respectively, were attained at a scan rate of 200 mV/s in pure lead oxide. The synthesized pure lead oxide has displayed remarkable cyclic stability, retaining approximately 83 % of its performance even after undergoing 2000 cycles. The addition of bismuth to the lead oxide appeared to inhibit the electrochemical properties of lead oxide due to bismuth ion adsorption. This effect is directly concerned with the amount of dopant which predicted the increase in bismuth contents potentially suppressed the performance of the lead oxide. Our study provides insights into the possible uses of lead oxides in energy storage and conversion devices by revealing a previously unexplored method for optimizing their electrochemical characteristics. The understanding of oxide‐based materials in materials science and electrochemistry is expected to advance with the use of this novel technology.

Zinc and bismuth additives' impacts on the physical properties of lead-free alloys used in electronic appliances

Zinc and bismuth additives' impacts on the physical properties of lead-free alloys used in electronic appliances

Development of an Al-Zn-Bi alloy sacrificial anode for the protection of steel in artificial seawater: an electrochemical analysis

The Al-Zn sacrificial anodes are widely used for cathodic protection in marine steel structures. This study evaluates the impact of bismuth addition on the electrochemical properties of the Al-Zn sacrificial anode in artificial seawater. The microstructure analysis confirms the presence of uniformly distributed intermetallic β-AlFeSi and spherical Bi within the α-Al matrix. The open circuit potential (OCP) comparison between Al-Zn-Bi and carbon steel reveals a potential difference of approximately 400 mV, indicating sufficient cathodic protection for the steel. Electrochemical impedance measurements indicate the initial hindered dissolution of the anode due to surface film formation, which later dissociates due to the aggressive attack of Cl− species in the electrolyte. The sufficiently negative surface potential (−0.875 Vvs. Ag/AgCl) observed at 10 mA cm−2 demonstrates the suitability of anode for fulfilling the cathodic protection criteria of steel structures.

Zinc-Bismuth Binary Alloy Enabling High-Performance Aqueous Zinc Ion Batteries.

Reconfiguration of zinc anodes efficiently mitigates dendrite formation and undesirable side reactions, thus favoring the long-term cycling performance of aqueous zinc ion batteries (AZIBs). This study synthesizes a Zn@Bi alloy anode (Zn@Bi) using the fusion method, and find that the anode surfaces synthesized using this method have an extremely high percentage of Zn(002) crystalline surfaces. Experimental results indicate that the addition of bismuth inhibits the hydrogen evolution reaction and corrosion of zinc anodes. The finite-element simulation results indicate that Zn@Bi can effectively achieve a uniform anodic electric field, thereby regulating the homogeneous depositions of zinc ions and reducing the production of Zn dendrite. Theoretical calculations reveal that the incorporation of Bi favors the anode structure stabilization and higher adsorption energy of Zn@Bi corresponds to better Zn deposition kinetics. The Zn@Bi//Zn@Bi symmetric cell demonstrates an extended cycle life of 1000h. Furthermore, when pairing Zn@Bi with an α-MnO2 cathode to construct a Zn@Bi//MnO2 cell, a specific capacity of 119.3 mAh g-1 is maintained even after 1700 cycles at 1.2 A g-1. This study sheds light on the development of dendrite-free anodes for advanced AZIBs.

Thermodynamic and Microstructural Analysis of Lead-Free Machining Aluminium Alloys with Indium and Bismuth Additions.

The present study comprises an investigation involving thermodynamic analysis, microstructural characterisation, and a comparative examination of the solidification sequence in two different aluminium alloys: EN AW 6026 and EN AW 1370. These alloys were modified through the addition of pure indium and a master alloy consisting of indium and bismuth. The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the potential suitability of indium, either alone or in combination with bismuth, as a substitute for toxic lead in free-machining aluminium alloys. Thermodynamic analysis was carried out using Thermo-Calc TCAL-6 software, supplemented by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments. The microstructure of these modified alloys was characterised using SEM-EDS analysis. The results provide valuable insights into the formation of different phases and eutectics within the alloys studied. The results represent an important contribution to the development of innovative, lead-free aluminium alloys suitable for machining processes, especially for use in automatic CNC cutting machines. One of the most important findings of this research is the promising suitability of indium as a viable alternative to lead. This potential stems from indium's ability to avoid interactions with other alloying elements and its tendency to solidify as homogeneously distributed particles with a low melting point. In contrast, the addition of bismuth does not improve the machinability of magnesium-containing aluminium alloys. This is primarily due to their interaction, which leads to the formation of the Mg3Bi2 phase, which solidifies as a eutectic with a high melting point. Consequently, the presence of bismuth appears to have a detrimental effect on the machining properties of the alloy when magnesium is present in the composition.

Investigation of the optoelectronic and structural properties of FA(1−x)BixPbBr6I3 of perovskite mixed halide films

In this study, we analyzed the structural and optical characteristics of pure FAPbBr2I mixed halide perovskites and doped with a large proportion of bismuth. Previous work has demonstrated that the replacement of 2/3 of the iodine by bromine in the perovskite FAPbI3 limits its phase transition and thus increases its stability. However, this improvement in stability is accompanied by an increase in the band gap, from 1.45 to about 2 eV. It has been found that bismuth doping of certain perovskite materials makes it possible, in addition to increasing their stability, to significantly reduce their band gap, although certain authors still contest this phenomenon. Thus, we synthesized thin layers of perovskite FAPbBr2I doped with bismuth and studied the effect of this doping on the crystalline structure and the layers' optical characteristics thanks to analyses by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and measurements of absorption and photoluminescence. The structural analysis results showed that bismuth diffuses very slowly into the crystal, resulting in a reduction in crystal size and a smoother surface. Moreover, measurements of the absorption coefficient revealed a significant reduction in the band gap, going from 2.08 eV with 0% bismuth to 1.45 eV with 20% bismuth. However, photoluminescence measurements gave much higher bandgap values. We believe that a phenomenon related to the addition of bismuth is responsible for this discrepancy.

Investigation of A New Type of Aluminum–Magnesium Alloy with Bismuth Additions Subjected to Thermomechanical Heat Treatment

Investigation of A New Type of Aluminum–Magnesium Alloy with Bismuth Additions Subjected to Thermomechanical Heat Treatment

Shape memory effect and aging behavior of Bi-added Ti–Cr alloys for biomedical applications

For the further development of biocompatible metastable β (bcc) Ti alloys, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential of bismuth (Bi) addition in terms of shape memory properties and phase stability. It was found that the shape memory effect appeared in Ti–5Cr–1.6Bi (mol%) alloy. However, permanent (unrecoverable) deformation due to dislocations or twinning was also introduced simultaneously from the early stage of deformation. Regarding the formation of isothermal ω phase and the resulting hardness change by aging, it was found that the hardness change was large and that the isothermal ω phase formed in Ti–5Cr–1.6Bi alloy, while age hardening was small and no isothermal ω phase formed in Ti–5Cr–6.1Bi alloy. These results indicate the suppression of not only athermal ω but also isothermal ω phase by Bi addition. However, considering the fact that the alloy becomes brittle when Bi addition is over 3 mol%, it can be concluded that 1–3 mol% Bi addition is worth for the improvement of shape memory effect, suppression of ω phase, X-ray imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, and biocompatibility in metastable β Ti alloys.

Bismuth concentration influenced competition between electrochemical reactions in the all-vanadium redox flow battery

The current obstacles for all-vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) include the sluggish reaction kinetics of electrode materials and the overlapping potential range of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with the negative redox couple. Bismuth (Bi) additives have exhibited tremendous enhancement of battery performance; however, the performance plateaus with concentration of Bi and the catalytic mechanism remains inconclusive and controversial. Quantified kinetic values from three electrochemical methodologies, including modelling, show that the performance plateau with Bi concentration was related to the kinetics of the vanadium redox reaction (VRR) instead of dissolution of Bi, and VRR reaction rate was improved three orders of magnitude with the addition of Bi, with the highest VRR reaction rate observed for electrolyte with 750 ppm Bi additive. Additionally, a competing relationship between VRR and the HER was explored via electrochemical methodologies. It was further confirmed that Bi effectively selectively catalysed VRR over HER via in-situ mass spectrometry measurements during battery cycling, which allows for a higher battery charging cut-off potential of 1.7 V without electrolyte imbalance caused by water electrolysis, achieving 86% of the theoretical electrolyte capacity at 110 mA cm−2 with 750 ppm Bi. The full battery performance with 750 ppm Bi additive is among the best in the literature to date.

Enhancing the radiographic imaging of void defects in grouts by attenuation coefficient modification of grouting materials

The use of radiographic testing methods such as X-ray computed tomography (XCT) and digital radiography (DR) to non-destructively evaluate the quality of grouting work suffers a major setback of poor contrast and visibility of the voids which makes detection very difficult. This study explores the feasibility of using high-density modified cement grouts by addition of baryte, bismuth oxide and lead concentrate to alter the attenuation characteristics of the grout. The influence of these additives on the fluidity, hydration kinetics, thermal stability, density, compressive strength and mass attenuation coefficient of grout were evaluated. The results show that the additives increased the fluidity of grout and caused a retardation effect on the hydration of grout. The density of the hardened modified grouts showed enhancements and the compressive strength at all ages were reduced. The synergistic performance of Ba and Bi increased the mass attenuation coefficient difference between the grouts and air from 12.15% (air and unmodified grout) to 116.32% (air and grout with both baryte and bismuth addition) at a photon energy of 160 keV. Subsequently, the visibility of the void in the grout and the contrast between void and grout were enhanced by 203.9% and 158.8%, respectively. This gives a promising outlook to modify the grouting material radiation attenuation characteristics to complement equipment and scanning parameter improvements in the detection and evaluation of voids in grouted segments.

Fabrication and mechanical properties of Bi-added Ti–Cr alloys for biomedical applications

The potential of the Bismuth (Bi) addition was evaluated for the development of biocompatible metastable β (bcc) Ti alloys from the viewpoints of mechanical properties and phase stability. The basic alloy was Ti–5 mol% Cr, and 0–9 mol% Bi was added in nominal composition. A Ti–Bi binary alloy was also selected. The alloys were fabricated using a standard laboratory-scale arc melting machine under an Ar atmosphere. The weight loss was significant during melting due to Bi evaporation. The measured Bi content is linearly proportional to the Bi nominal composition with MCBi = 2/3 NCBi, allowing the prediction and control of Bi content of the alloy. Then, the microstructure, workability, and mechanical properties were systematically investigated. The phase constitution of the Ti–5Cr binary alloy was β + α′ (hcp) + ω (hexagonal). The presence of the athermal ω phase resulted in significantly poor cold workability and poor ductility. It was also found that the addition of Bi to the Ti–5Cr alloy stabilized the β phase and suppressed the ω phase formation. The phase stability of Ti–Cr–Bi alloy is discussed using Mo equivalent and electron-to-atom (e/a) ratio. Ti–5Cr–1.6Bi alloy showed improved workability and ductility. However, with further increasing Bi addition, the Ti–5Cr–3.7Bi alloy showed no plastic deformation, and the Ti–5Cr–6.1Bi alloy was broken even during hot-rolling. Thus, it is concluded that ∼2 mol% Bi addition is suitable and that such a small amount of Bi addition is an attractive candidate for the development of β Ti alloys.

Microstructure and Hardness of an Al–8 wt%Si–2.5 wt%Bi Alloy Subjected to Solidification Cooling Rates from 0.1 to 800 K s−1

This work explores the effect of the addition of bismuth (Bi) to Al–8 wt%Si alloys. Bi in Aluminum based alloys works as a self‐lubricating agent, improving machining and wear properties. As Bi is a soft material, it is essential to evaluate how it affects microstructural features and the resulting properties of Al–8 wt%Si alloys. Herein, this hypoeutectic alloy is modified by the addition of 2.5 wt%Bi and subjected to three solidification techniques: differential scanning calorimetry, transient directional solidification, and impulse atomization. Thus, this work investigates the effect of Bi in samples solidified under a wide range of cooling rates. Of specific interest is how Bi modifies the eutectic silicon morphology and alloy hardness compared with a hypoeutectic Al–10 wt%Si alloy from the literature. The silicon (Si) morphology of Al–8 wt%Si–2.5 wt%Bi transitions from flaky (coarse) to fibrous (fine) at a critical cooling rate of 1100 K s−1. Through the combination of Bi addition and processing through impulse atomization, the ternary Al–Si–Bi alloy achieves improvements in hardness of up to 20% compared to Al–10 wt%Si. This is despite having a coarser eutectic microstructure than the binary hypoeutectic Al–Si alloy. This is due to Bi modifying the morphology of the eutectic Si.

Effect of bismuth on microstructure, mechanical properties and fracture behavior of AZ magnesium alloys

Magnesium alloys are mostly known for their great availability, superior mechanical properties, and their cost-efficiency compared to other lightweight alloys. Magnesium alloy refinements like Bismuth (Bi) addition can cater the alloy to the needs of industrial units with lower cost and greater mechanical stability in the ambient and elevated temperatures. In current study, the effect of Bi addition (1 and 3 wt%) on microstructure and mechanical properties of the as-cast and solution-treated alloy grades of AZ31, AZ61, and AZ91 were deeply investigated. The volume fraction of the intermetallic phase of Mg3Bi2 directly was related to Bi addition. As a result, homogenous dispersion of Mg3Bi2 particles led to further dispersity of Mg17Al12 particles, which contributed to altering the mechanical properties. Optimum hardness and grain refinement were observed in samples with 1 wt% of Bi. Both the tensile strength and elongation of all alloys improved with the Bi addition. However, for samples with a greater Bi content of 1 wt%, the workability and formability of the alloy decreased. Furthermore, the fracture mechanism of all the samples, regardless of their Bi content, was cleavage and quasi-cleavage, and there was no discernible change in fracture behavior.

Electrolysis of glycerol to value‐added chemicals in alkaline media

AbstractBACKGROUNDGlycerol, a by‐product of biodiesel production, is produced in large quantities, exceeding its demand. The saturation of glycerol resulted in a sharp reduction in its market value and the surplus waste may pose a risk to the environment. By means of electrochemical technologies, glycerol could be oxidized into value‐added products such as glycerate, tartronate and lactate. In the present work, carbon‐supported NiBi catalysts with different atomic ratios (NixBi1−x/C, wherex = 100, 95, 90 and 50 at%) were fabricated and utilized in a 25 cm2 electrolysis cell.RESULTSThe as‐fabricated catalysts were characterized and analyzed by various physicochemical and electrochemical characterizations. Using a three‐electrode electrochemical cell, Ni95Bi5/C showed the highest current density of 104 mA cm−2, with an onset potential of 1.32 V versus a reversible hydrogen electrode. Long‐term chronoamperometry was performed in a glycerol electrolysis cell accompanied by the product analysis using high‐performance liquid chromatography. It was found that Ni95Bi5/C had higher selectivity to glycerate C3 product compared to Ni/C. Additionally, optimizing experimental conditions (applied potential, residence time and temperature) to achieve higher selectivity to C3 products was thoroughly studied. The selectivity to C3 value‐added products was enhanced by adjusting the operating conditions.CONCLUSIONSmall addition of bismuth to Ni/C enhanced both catalytic activity and selectivity to C3 products. The main products formed on NixBi1−x/C were formate and glycerate, while the secondary products were glycolate, tartronate, oxalate and lactate. By running electrolysis under optimal conditions, the selectivity to C3 products was significantly enhanced. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).