Agricultural Adaptation Strategies Research Articles

Typology of Plantain Cultivation in a Context of Climate Change in the Agroecological Zone of Haut-Sassandra, Central-West, Côte d'Ivoire

The Haut-Sassandra region (Côte d'Ivoire), experiencing climate change with its many consequences, continues to produce bananas even if the level has fallen in recent years. This work was carried out to understand the adaptation strategies of plantain farmers facing the consequences of climate change. The methodological approach consisted of listing banana plantations of more than one hectare in Haut-Sassandra and carrying out a survey on plantain cultivation practices observed in this agroecological zone. The survey carried out made it possible to list 34 banana plantations with areas of between 1.5 and 5 hectares. For the establishment of banana plantations, slash-and-burn crops are the most favored (100%). The most used crop type is the crop association (85%) (cocoa (65%), coffee (15%) and food crops (5%)). Only 15% of banana plantations were monoculture. The fight against the wind is achieved by hedges made up of plots of rubber and teak surrounding the banana plantations. Symptoms of biotic and abiotic diseases were observed in all the banana plantations investigated. To maintain sustainability and better banana production, Haut-Sassandra planters combine several agroecological practices.

Agricultural Adaptation Strategies to Weather Fluctuations for Improved Agribusiness Sustainability in West Java

This research investigates agricultural adaptation strategies to weather fluctuations for enhancing agribusiness sustainability in West Java, Indonesia. Employing a qualitative research methodology, the study delves into the challenges posed by climate variability and the responses of farmers and agribusiness stakeholders to mitigate these challenges. Through interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation, the research identifies key weather-related challenges, including erratic rainfall patterns, temperature extremes, natural disasters, and pest outbreaks. Furthermore, the study explores adaptation strategies such as crop diversification, water management, soil conservation, adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties, and agroforestry. The findings contribute to understanding the complexities of agricultural adaptation and offer insights for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders to promote sustainable agribusiness development in West Java and similar regions facing climate-related challenges.

Farmers’ Perception and Adaptation Strategies Towards Climate Change: A Village Level Study in India

The present study attempted to observe the perception and adaptation strategies of farmers in the context of climate change. It observes that the majority of the farmers are aware of climate change and understand that they are facing problems due to it. The major problems faced by the farmers are the long duration of dryness due to lack of rainfall, weed pressure, very high temperatures, and crop disease. However, farmers are not very aware of technological adaptation and have changed the cropping time due to changes in the time of monsoon. The study recommends that there is a need for intensive micro and macro policy initiatives in terms of modern green sustainable technology along with awareness and skill development of the farmers. The government should also focus more on policy initiatives for sustainable agricultural practices in line with sustainable development goals.

Rural households' livelihood adaptation strategies in the face of changing climate: A case study from Pakistan

Rural and agricultural communities' adaptation to climate change has gained significant attention owing to many countries' vulnerability to climate change risks. A similar trend has been witnessed in South Asia, a highly climate-vulnerable region, where research has grown dramatically considering the agriculture sector's vulnerability to climate-induced disasters. However, little attention has been paid to the adaptation of the livelihoods of rural households. This research, therefore, takes the case of Pakistan to explore livelihood adaptation strategies of rural households to climate change and investigate the factors that expedite or halt the adoption of livelihood diversification strategies. A multistage sampling design is used in this research, where 480 rural households from the Punjab province of Pakistan were selected and interviewed using stratified and random sampling approaches. A multivariate probit (MVP) regression model is employed to analyze the factors affecting households' adoption of livelihood adaptation strategies. The results show that besides adaptation of agronomic operations (agricultural adaptation strategies), rural households in the study area employed a wide range of strategies to adapt their livelihoods to climate change. These strategies include poultry and livestock farming, value addition of farm produce, trading of animals and farm commodities, small businesses (shops, etc.), daily wage labor, horticultural crop farming, and non-farming jobs. The estimates of the MVP model revealed that respondents' education, household size, income, access to a credit facility, access to farm advisory services, and access to climate forecasts have significantly influenced the choice of livelihood adaptation strategies. Based on these findings, this research recommends that the authorities should make efforts to improve farmers' understanding of the adaptation of climate change risks and educate them to adopt multiple livelihood options to improve the resilience of their livelihoods to climate-induced risks. This research has important policy implications for other countries with similar socio-economic features.

Investigation of the Variability of Dry / Wet Meteorological conditions using the SPEI / SPI Index in the Selo Watershed, Period 1981-2020.

The significant impact of climate change is high variability in rainfall and an increase in extreme rainfall events. The impacts resulted in severe dry/wet conditions. Severe dry conditions can lead to crop failure due to lack of water availability, while severe wet conditions can indicate flooding. This paper aims to investigate the variability of dry/wet meteorological conditions in the Selo watershed. The investigation was carried out using the SPEI and SPI. The results show that wet/dry conditions do not have a clear pattern variability in the long term. Seasonal wet/dry conditions show a changing trend towards wetter conditions in all seasons. Spatially, the changes occur throughout the study area, with the most significant changes occurring in the upstream and downstream parts of the watershed. In the last two decades, wet conditions are more dominant to replace dry conditions that were more prominent in the previous two decades. Other analysis results conclude that there is no influence of air temperature in creating wet/dry conditions in the Selo watershed area. So that the characteristics of wet/dry conditions are very useful for considering the selection of agricultural adaptation strategies in dealing with variability and climate change in the Selo watershed area.

Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Agriculture

Climate Change and Adaptation Strategies in Agriculture

Climate Change & Crop Adaptation: Geophysical Data on Soil Moisture Changes & Agricultural Strategies

This study aims to determine the effect of soil moisture variability on plant productivity. This was done using an integrated approach that combined quantitative research on soil water issues with crop yields and farmer characteristics. Soil moisture measurements were collected from five locations using multiple sampling methods, surveys, and interviews with local farmers. Statistical analysis showed a significant relationship between soil moisture levels and crop yields, indicating that optimum moisture conditions are associated with increased yields. Qualitative findings may shed light on farmer's adaptation strategies and their perceptions of soil moisture management practices. The findings of this study highlight the importance of soil moisture in influencing agricultural yields and the need to adapt soil and water management strategies to unique conditions. These findings improve the current understanding of the complex dynamics of soil moisture changes. They provide practical ideas to increase agricultural livelihoods and influence the development of sustainable land management policies and practices.

Addressing the impacts of climate change on agricultural adaptation strategies: a case study in Nepal

PurposeAs climate change increasingly affects rural food production, there is an urgent need to adopt agricultural adaptation strategies. Because the agricultural sector in Nepal is one of the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change, the adaptation strategies of household farmers in rural areas are crucial. This study aims to address the impacts of agricultural climate change adaptation strategies in Nepal. The research empirically analyzed climate hazards, adaptation strategies and local adaptation plans in Mangalsen Municipality, Achham District, Sudurpashchim Province, Nepal.Design/methodology/approachThis study used a purposive sampling of household lists, categorized as resource-rich, resource-poor and intermediate households. The analysis used primary data from 110 household surveys conducted among six focus groups and 30 informants were selected for interviews through purposive random sampling.FindingsClimate change significantly impacts rainfall patterns and temperature, decreasing agriculture productivity and increasing household vulnerability. To overcome these negative impacts, it is crucial to implement measures such as efficient management of farms and livestock. A comprehensive analysis of Nepalese farmers' adaptation strategies to climate change has been conducted, revealing important insights into their coping mechanisms. By examining the correlation between farmers' strategies and the role of the local government, practical policies can be developed for farmers at the local level.Originality/valueThis study represents a significant breakthrough in the authors' understanding of this issue within the context of Nepal. It has been conclusively demonstrated that securing land tenure or land security and adopting appropriate agricultural methods, such as agroforestry, can be instrumental in enabling Nepalese households to cope with the effects of climate change effectively.

Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on Agricultural Production and Adaptation Strategies for Farmers: Agricultural Policy Perspectives.

Climate change poses significant challenges to agricultural production, impacting farmers globally. This journal article conducts an in-depth analysis of the effects of climate change on agricultural production and explores adaptation strategies from an agricultural policy perspective. The research employs a comprehensive review of existing literature, empirical data, and agricultural policies to assess the multifaceted implications of climate change on global food security. The study reveals the diverse impacts of climate change on agricultural systems, including altered precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and shifts in temperature regimes. These changes result in disruptions to crop cycles, reduced yields, and heightened vulnerability for farmers. In response, the research identifies and evaluates various adaptation strategies implemented by agricultural policymakers. Adaptation strategies encompass a range of measures, including the development of drought-resistant crop varieties, improved water management practices, and the promotion of climate-smart agricultural techniques. The analysis extends to the assessment of policy frameworks that support the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, emphasizing the importance of integrating climate adaptation into broader agricultural policies. The article concludes with policy recommendations aimed at fostering a more resilient agricultural sector in the face of climate change. It underscores the need for collaborative efforts between policymakers, researchers, and farmers to ensure the effective implementation of adaptation strategies. By aligning agricultural policies with climate adaptation goals, nations can mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change on agricultural production and enhance the overall sustainability of the sector.

Farmer’s Perception and Efficacy of Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change in North Eastern Transition Zone of Karnataka State in India

A primary survey during the year 2021-22 was carried out among the 240 farmers of Bidar and Gulbarga districts of North Eastern Transition Zone in Karnataka to study the farmer’s perception on climate change for the period 1979 to 2019 and validate their opinions with the change in the meteorological indicators. About 74 percent of farmers expressed that there is a decline in crop yield while 83 percent of farmers opined that is a shift of employment from farm to non-farm activities during the period of forty years. Farmers practice various farm adaptation strategies activities to overcome the effect of climate change. Through Garatte ranking, it is revealed that most of the farmers prefer to practice alteration of sowing dates of crop (rank 1) as adaptation strategy followed by using of drought tolerant varieties (rank 2) and mixed cropping (rank3). Binary Logit analysis was used to identify the socio- economic attributes of households influencing the adoption of adaptation strategy to climate change. The results showed that, the variables like farm size, access to institutional credit, live stock ownership and climate information are the factors which positively shows significant influence on adoption. Economic incentives play an important role in the adoption of modern technologies. Access to institutional credit will support the farmers financially in adopting water conservation techniques like farm ponds, micro irrigation products.

Climate change and adaptation strategies in rural Ghana: a study on smallholder farmers in the Mamprugu-Moaduri district

PurposeThis study aims to analyze the perceptions of smallholder farmers on climate change and events and further explores climate change adaptation strategies and associated challenges. The findings provide useful information for enhancing the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to adjust to climate-related hazards and improve their resilience and disaster preparedness in northern Ghana.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses a multistage sampling procedure and sample size of 150 farmers, the Binary Probit Model (BPM), to identify and examine the determinants of climate change adaptation strategies adopted by smallholder farmers. Also, the constraints of adaptation were analyzed using Kendall’s coefficient of concordance.FindingsThe results from the BPM and statistics of Kendall’s coefficient revealed that the farm risk level, ability to adapt, farmer’s income, age, farming experience, climate change awareness and extension visits were factors that significantly influenced the adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers (in order of importance). The majority (60%) of the farmers ranked farm risk level as the major constraint to adopting climate change strategies.Originality/valueThe findings of this study enhance understanding on access to relevant and timely climate change adaptation information such as an early warning to farmers during the start of the farming/rainy season to support their adaptive responses to climate change.

Sustaining crop yield and water quality under climate change in intensively managed agricultural watersheds—the need for both adaptive and conservation measures

The projected near-future climate (2031–2059) of wetter springs and drier summers may negatively affect agricultural production in the US Midwest, mostly through reduced aeration of the root zone due to excess soil water and frequent loss of nutrients such as nitrate (NO3-N) and total phosphorus. Several agricultural adaptations—such as adding tile drains and increasing fertilizer rates—may be deployed to mitigate potential reductions in crop yield. However, these adaptations (generally driven by economic benefits) may have a severe impact on water quality, which is already under stress due to excess nutrient runoff from agricultural fields causing hypoxia in inland and coastal waters. Here, we evaluate the crop yield and water quality consequences of such adaptations under future climate with the Soil and Water Assessment Tool in a testbed watershed located in central Illinois. We show that additional tile drains and increased fertilizers can help achieve baseline (2003–2018) corn yields but with a nearly two-fold increase in riverine NO3-N yield affecting a major drinking water supply source. However, a shift to spring-only fertilizer application may not require additional fertilizer and reduces the increase in NO3-N loss to 1.25 times above the baseline. We also show that water quality may improve (better than baseline) with conservation measures such as cover crops and switchgrass. Our findings highlight the need to develop efficient climate change adaptation and conservation strategies for sustainable agriculture and water quality.

Farmers Adaptation Strategies to Adverse Impacts of Drought on Agriculture of the Central Barind Tract of Bangladesh: An Empirical Study

Drought is a reoccurring phenomenon which is considered as one of the topmost slow-onset disasters in the central Barind Tract of northwestern Bangladesh. Due to the consequences of drought, agriculture of this area is highly impacted as well as the farmers fall in multidimensional livelihoods disruption. The objective of the paper is to investigate the existing adaptive measures practicing by farmers to combat adverse impacts of agricultural drought in two representative drought-prone locations of Rajshahi District of Bangladesh. The present study is mainly based on semi-structured household questionnaire survey. Eventually, the survey was conducted in 2019 among 303 households out of 1421 by using Kothari (2004) sampling formula considering 95% significance level and samples are determined through simple random sampling. Both descriptive and inferential statistics are used to analyze the adoption options of the cultivators of the study areas from geographical perspectives. It is found that most of the farmers adopted several measures rely on their traditional knowledge and experiences, participation in community trainings as well as receiving the facilities and support from different GOs and NGOs. Farmers are cultivating drought tolerant crop varieties, adopting rainwater harvesting, intercropping with rice, temporally changing occupation, using fertilizer and composting to accelerate crop production rate, changing irrigation system, participating in agro-training for coping with modern technologies, seeking to draw the compensation from GOs and microcredit of NGOs etc. to minimize drought impacts. However, the findings of present study are expected to provide useful guidelines to policy makers for facilitating farmers in sustaining their livelihoods against adverse impacts of agricultural drought in Barind Tract of Bangladesh.

A Comprehensive Review on Climate Change Adaptation Strategies and Challenges in Agriculture

This review examines the impact of climate change on Indian agriculture and adaptation strategies. Climate change, driven by human activities, poses challenges like rising temperatures and extreme weather events. Rising temperatures can induce heat stress in crops, leading to reduced yields and poor quality produce. Farmers use adaptation measures like altering planting dates and developing climate-resilient crops. Changing rainfall patterns, erratic or insufficient rainfall can trigger drought conditions, parching farmlands and causing crop failures. On the other hand, excessive rainfall can result in flooding, which damages crops and soil, disrupting agricultural operations especially during the monsoon. Soil conservation, precision agriculture, and urban food production initiatives promote food security and resource recycling. Addressing water scarcity requires improved irrigation and efficient water management. Climate change affects agricultural pests population and threatening global food security. Various adaptation strategies, including traditional practices, resource-conservation technologies, and socio-economic interventions, are being implemented. Climate-smart agriculture technologies like precision agriculture increase yields and resilience. Success depends on regional suitability, economic viability, and collective implementation. Agriculture operates within a complex socio-ecological system with uncertainties in policy, economics, and climate. Site-specific climate-smart agriculture practices are crucial for smallholders' resilience and food security. Publicly provided agricultural extension services can help adopt these technologies, but barriers like financial constraints and cultural factors must be considered. This review emphasizes the need for comprehensive, context-specific approaches to address vulnerabilities in Indian agriculture to climate change and ensure a sustainable future for food production and smallholder livelihoods.

Socio-ecological Challenges and Adaptation Strategies of Farmers Towards Changing Climate in Vindhyan highlands, India.

The Indian agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate change which adversely affects crop production and livelihood of farmers. The effect is more intensified in Vindhyan highlands, where prolong drought and high rate of poverty exist in depredation environment. In this context, present study conducted to explore farmers' perception, attitude about climate change and adaptive capabilities. We undertook an interview schedules survey through structured questionnaire in Duddhi block of Sonbhadra district. A total of 400 households were selected in which 347 (86.75%) male and 53 (13.25%) female respondents have participated. The perception of farmers on climate change is presented in SI (severity index) which varies from 36% to 68.63%. The statement 'rainy season decreases' ranked first with SI (68.63%) followed by 'temperature increases' SI (66.06%). This investigation identified 17 types of adaptive practices which are frequently performed in the Vindhyan highlands. Based on the WAI (Weighted Average Index) score, crop diversification (2.0), cultivation of drought-adapted crop varieties (1.99), changing plantation calendar (1.95) were the most adopted practices. Multiple regression analysis between the socio-economic status of farmers and the adaptation practices, recorded a significant positive relationship with age (P < 0.01), family size (P < 0.05), education (P < 0.01), caste categories (P < 0.05) and livestock ownership (P < 0.01) of farmer. This study will be helpful in developing drought resilience farming practices for sustaining the livelihood of farmers and inform policy making.

Level of adoption of climate smart agriculture among smallholder rice farmers in Osun State: does financing matter?

Application of climate smart agriculture (CSA) technologies being context-specific is premised on integrating agroclimatic and socioeconomic conditions, institutional structures, and most importantly, financing mechanisms vis-à-vis the adoption capacities of the farmers. This study examined financing adoption intensity of CSA technologies among sampled smallholder rice farmers in Osun State, Nigeria. The results of this study point to the fact that gender of household head, marital status, access to climate information, access to off-farm income, access to cooperative and access to credit were the determinants of level of adoption of CSA technology amongst the smallholder rice farmers in the study area. In view of the nexus between CSA adoption level and access to credit as revealed in this study, increasing awareness about how the credit market works and information on the provision of climate change can help farmers to better adapt to climate change. This significant impact of the credit accessibility on level of CSA adoption confirms the critical role that credit availability has in climate financing. Thus, agricultural policies to improve institutional support, such as involvement in farm-based cooperative, credit facility, and off-farm income activities, are crucial to upscale CSA adoption in the study area. The income from non-farm activities can be reinvested into farm operations to improve farmers’ adaptive capacity and subsequently increase productivity. It could also be recommended that policies enhancing and strengthening institutional support may also be valuable in augmenting the adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers.

The effects of climate change-induced flooding on harvest failure in Burkina Faso: case study.

Climate change leads to more frequent and severe extreme weather events including floods, heatwaves, heavy rainfalls, and droughts. In contrast to the majority of research on weather extremes in sub-Saharan Africa, which focus primarily on how a lack of rainfall causes droughts, this paper aims to elucidate the effect of flooding on harvest failure in rural Burkina Faso. We conducted a case study in north-western Nouna, Burkina Faso, between August and December 2021 covering a study population of n = 180 participants. The study comprised four components: (i) interviews with farmers (n = 180) on whether any of their fields had been inundated and if so, on harvest loss on these fields; (ii) determining the feasibility of using Sentinel-2 satellite images to validate study participants reports of floods; (iii) characterizing short-term weather including frequency and duration, of extreme rainfall events within the study area, as well as comparing cumulative rainfall (long-term) over the past 50 years; and (v), estimating both the food energy and economic loss of harvest failure due to flooding. 49% of interviewed farmers (n = 88) reported that floods had damaged at least one of their fields. Some fields (n = 13, 7%) had no harvest due to flooding, while some farmers (n = 14, 8%) had lost part of their harvest. Images from the Sentinel-2-Satellite indicated that reported and remotely observed flooding were consistent. According to time series of data from the local weather station, there has been an increase irregular rainfall distribution and at the same time of cumulative annual rainfall in Nouna. Furthermore, a first illustrative calculation allowed us to estimate the amount of energy lost when one hectare of a common crop is flooded. This case study demonstrated that flood-related harvest failures leading to crop losses in sub-Saharan Africa, exemplified by Burkina Faso, are likely to be substantial. This study serves as a proof-of-principle for flooding effects on food security. This could provide more detail for agricultural adaptation and mitigation strategies. Inundation-vulnerable fields need alternative and novel management practices, which may only be effectively implemented if agricultural institutions and national policy-making bodies receive evidence of flooding e.g., from remote sensing.

Farmer Adaptation Strategies in Applying Agricultural Mechanization in Wetlands of Ogan Ilir Regency, South Sumatera

Increasing food production, which is currently difficult to do on productive land with an extensification pattern due to limited land availability, causes the exploitation of wetlands with the category of lebak land (marginal land) to be an option for expanding food crops to increase food production in South Sumatra which has a lot of wetlands. Technological engineering is an option in overcoming the constraints of processing lebak land, especially in the use of agricultural tools and machinery which are still low in interest and adoption rates among farmers. This study aims to; (1) formulate strategies so that farmers are interested in cultivating lebak land into productive land, (2) formulate farmer adaptation strategies in cultivating lebak land by applying relevant technology. The survey method was used in this study with two layers of samples (farmers who used Alsintan and farmers who worked on the land manually), as many as 50 respondents in each layer (a total of 100 respondents) were taken using a simple disproportionate random method. Primary and secondary data obtained, processed to calculate income, tested for differences using paired sample t tests, the results of which became the basis for strategies to increase farmers' interest. Formulation of adaptation strategies using the SWOT method with the results of the study: (1) farmers who apply mechanization technology in cultivating rice in lebak land can do their farming with IP 200, incur lower production costs, and higher production and income than farmers who cultivate it manually; (2) The use of mechanization technology is still not efficient in the use of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, so it must be optimized, (3) The adaptation strategy that must be carried out by farmers is an aggressive strategy because it is in quadrant I, which shows that rice farming in lebak land is in a strong position and has great opportunities to do. This strategy is the main strategy because the strength factors (S) and opportunities (O) owned by farmers in cultivating rice on lebak land have a value greater than the weakness factors (W) and threats (T) that will be encountered.

COVID-19 and Pennsylvania farmers: Financial impacts, relief programs, and resiliency strategies during the 2020 growing season

This article reports the findings of a multimethod study of the financial impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Pennsylvania (PA) farmers during the 2020 growing season. Previous research on resili­ency and the food system has encouraged explor­ing ways to describe the agency and adaptability of farmers as they respond to changing conditions. Further, the research has documented the ways that governments intervene to maintain the overall structure of the food system. This study utilized a three-part framework that focused on (a) under­standing the impact of the pandemic on PA farm­ers, (b) describing farmer adaptation strategies and direct-to-consumer marketing practices, and (c) documenting federal relief program participation. The project included an anonymous survey of more than 300 farmers and semi-structured interviews with a subset of 16 farmers. Based on the findings from the survey, under half (42%) of farmers reported a loss of revenue, while over half reported either no change or an increase in revenue in 2020. We also found that vegetable farmers fared slightly better than livestock/dairy farmers; those with a higher pre-COVID revenue did better than those with a lower pre-COVID revenue; and farms that were able to increase direct-to-consumer sales maintained or increased their total revenues. About half of the farmers surveyed participated in federal aid programs, yet a portion of small farms indicated they did not know whether they qualified for this funding. We discuss the unprecedented scale of federal aid to farmers in 2020 and the remaining access gaps for smaller farmers. Addi­tionally, we discuss the potentially protective role of direct-to-consumer sales for enhancing the resilience of regional food systems.

Assessment of agricultural adaptations to climate change from a water-energy-food nexus perspective

Adapting agriculture to climate change without deteriorating natural resources (e.g., water and energy) is critical to sustainable development. In this paper, we first comprehensively evaluate six agricultural adaptations in response to climate change (2021–2050) through the lens of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus in Saskatchewan, Canada, using a previously developed nexus model—WEF-Sask. The adaptations involve agronomic measures (early planting date, reducing soil evaporation, irrigation expansion), genetic improvement (cultivars with larger growing degree days (GDD) requirement), and combinations of individual adaptations. The results show that the selected adaptations compensate for crop yield losses (wheat, canola, pea), caused by climate change, to various extents. However, from a nexus perspective, there are mixed effects on water productivity (WP), total agricultural water (green and blue) use, energy consumption for irrigation, and hydropower generation. Individual adaptations such as early planting date and increased GDD requirement compensate for yield losses in both rainfed (0–60 %) and irrigated (18–100 %) conditions with extra use of green water (5–7 %), blue water (2–14 %), and energy for irrigation (2–14 %). Reducing soil water evaporation benefits the overall WEF nexus by compensating for rainfed yield losses (25–82 %) with less use of blue water and energy consumption for irrigation. The combination of the above three adaptations has the potential to sustain agricultural production in water-scarce regions. If irrigation expansion is also included, the combined adaptation almost fully offsets agricultural production losses from climate change but significantly increases blue water use (143–174 %) and energy consumption for irrigation while reducing hydropower production (3 %). This study provides an approach to comprehensively evaluating agricultural adaptation strategies, in response to climate change, and insights to inform decision-makers.