Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector Protocol Research Articles

An Energy-efficient Routing Protocol Based on Elephant Herding Optimization in MANET

Background: A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a collection of self-organizing mobile nodes creating an ad hoc network without fixed infrastructure. Routing is a major issue in mobile networks that may reduce network performance due to frequent network topology changes. Routing protocols are so important in dynamic multi-hop networks that many studies have focused on the routing problem in MANETs. Methods: In this research work, a proposed ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) with an elephant herding optimization (EHO) called AODVEHO is used as an optimal path selection method that creates a set of best paths between destination and source. Results: To validate the performance of proposed AODVEHO, AntHocNet, AODV, and designation sequence distance vector (DSDV). Various performance measures are considered to validate our proposed research work, such as packet delivery ratio (PDR), end-to-end delay (E2ED), and average energy consumption (AEC). Conclusion: Experimental results are indicated that the AODVEHO achieved a higher routing overhead (73 %), PDR (89.87 %), low E2ED rate (95.22 %), AEC (75.60 %), and dead nodes (75%) when compared to other routing schemes.

Enhancing Reliability and Stability of BLE Mesh Networks: A Multipath Optimized AODV Approach.

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) mesh networks provide flexible and reliable communication among low-power sensor-enabled Internet of Things (IoT) devices, enabling them to communicate in a flexible and robust manner. Nonetheless, the majority of existing BLE-based mesh protocols operate as flooding-based piconet or scatternet overlays on top of existing Bluetooth star topologies. In contrast, the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol used primarily in wireless ad hoc networks (WAHNs) is forwarding-based and therefore more efficient, with lower overheads. However, the packet delivery ratio (PDR) and link recovery time for AODV performs worse compared to flooding-based BLE protocols when encountering link disruptions. We propose the Multipath Optimized AODV (M-O-AODV) protocol to address these issues, with improved PDR and link robustness compared with other forwarding-based protocols. In addition, M-O-AODV achieved a PDR of 88%, comparable to the PDR of 92% for flooding-based BLE, unlike protocols such as Reverse-AODV (R-AODV). Also, M-O-AODV was able to perform link recovery within 3700 ms in the case of node failures, compared with other forwarding-based protocols that require 4800 ms to 6000 ms. Consequently, M-O-AODV-based BLE mesh networks are more efficient for wireless sensor-enabled IoT environments.

Extended Comparison and Performance Analysis for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks Routing Protocols Based on Different Traffic Load Patterns and Performance Metrics

A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a network of mobile nodes that dynamically form a transitory network lacking any existence of infrastructure and any form of centralized management. Nodes in ad hoc networks are powered by batteries with a limited lifespan and communicate in a restricted bandwidth. The unpredictable environment of a MANET may run into a major concern in the routing mechanism, therefore the need for a routing protocol with robust performance is still one of the key challenges in MANET deployment. In this work, a comparative comparison and extensive simulation analysis have been carried out for three major routing protocols: destination sequenced distance vector (DSDV), dynamic source routing (DSR) and ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV). Protocol evaluation has been extended by considering several simulation arrangements, different classes of traffic load patterns and diverse performance metrics. Based on packet rate change, node quantity and node speed, simulation scenarios were generated. Protocols were investigated against energy consumption, throughput, lost packets, routing load and packet delivery fraction for three types of traffic load patterns regular, irregular and joint traffic. DSR and AODV protocols proved to be more reliable when joint traffic was implemented when node speed and packets variations are considered. DSDV protocol verifies outstanding response over other protocols in terms of energy consumption when either regular or irregular traffic is applied. The simulation results for DSR protocol have verified the superiority over other protocols in 9 simulation scenarios when diverse metrics are considered. DSDV showed optimal performance in 7 cases, especially at low packet rates and in networks with minimum number of nodes. Similarly, AODV protocol showed outstanding performance in 6 scenarios, when higher packet rates and node mobility are considered.

Smart AODV Routing Protocol Strategies Based on Learning Automata to Improve V2V Communication Quality of Services in VANET

The Adhoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol faces challenges in selecting the best relay nodes, which requires optimization to improve performance in Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs). This study aims to enhance Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication in VANETs by implementing the Learning Automata-Driven Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (LA-AODV) routing protocol. LA-AODV is designed to achieve higher packet delivery ratios and optimize data transfer rates, even under congested network conditions, by dynamically adjusting to changing network scenarios. The performance evaluation includes six key metrics analyzed under varying node densities and time intervals, comparing LA-AODV against the standard AODV protocol. Results indicate that LA-AODV consistently outperforms AODV, demonstrating improved efficiency in flood identifier management, reduced data loss, higher packet delivery ratios, better throughput, and reduced end-to-end delay and jitter. Specifically, under a 20-node scenario, LA-AODV exhibits lower flood ID scores (54 vs. 88), reduced packet loss (11% vs. 12%), higher PDR (88.0% vs. 87.0%), and superior throughput (85.34 Kbps vs. 47.26 Kbps). Additionally, LA-AODV achieves lower end-to-end delay (6.84E+09 ns vs. 3.76E+10 ns) and jitter (2.52E+09 ns vs. 2.15E+10 ns). These findings suggest that LA-AODV significantly enhances Quality of Service (QoS) in vehicular ad-hoc networks, positioning it as a promising solution for optimizing V2V communication performance.

Detection of sequence number attacks using enhanced AODV protocol in MANETs

A Mobile Adhoc NETwork (MANET) operates without dedicated routing hardware, relying instead on dynamic wireless connections among nodes that can join or leave the network at any time. This dynamic nature demands a flexible routing protocol to manage variable number of nodes effectively. However, the absence of centralized infrastructure in MANETs poses security challenges, leaving nodes vulnerable to attacks. While several security solutions have been proposed, many face practical limitations. This paper introduces a novel approach to detect attacks on the Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol within MANETs, specifically those involving malicious nodes masquerading as best routing paths by manipulating AODV's sequence numbers. An extension to the AODV protocol is introduced to ensure secure communication between different nodes in MANET. The proposed security mechanism includes a signature verification mechanism based on the Edwards digital signature curve (Ed25519), which is demonstrated on the Objective Modular Network Testbed in C++ (OMNet++) simulator. Our solution employs an extension to AODV protocol where asymmetric cryptography is introduced to generate and authenticate digital signatures, ensuring a high level of security. Additionally, a novel detection mechanism is introduced to identify malicious nodes within the network as a supplementary security layer. Simulation results demonstrate a high detection rate, accurately identifying between 83 % and 100 % of malicious nodes based on their presence in the network.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PROACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (DSDV, OLSR) & REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS (AODV, DSR) IN MANET USING NS-3

The abstract outlines a comprehensive analysis focusing on routing protocols in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs). Ad-hoc networks are dynamic wireless networks without a central infrastructure. This analysis compares two types of routing protocols—proactive (table-driven) and reactive (on-demand)—using simulation analysis. The protocols DSDV, OLSR, AODV, and DSR are evaluated using NS-3, considering various performance metrics under different scenarios. The research aims to provide insights into protocol strengths and weaknesses, aiding network protocol selection and potential enhancements. This investigation contributes to understanding routing behaviours in ever-changing MANETs, benefiting network design and optimization efforts. Keywords: MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network), DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector), OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing), AODV (Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing), Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Trust-Based Routing Selection Policy on Mobile Ad-Hoc Network Using Aodv Routing Protocol

This study presents an enhanced Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, termed Proposed_TAODV, designed to improve security in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) of 150 nodes by incorporating trust-based mechanisms. Through a comprehensive simulation, the Proposed_TAODV is evaluated against existing AODV and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocols under conditions of increasing malicious node presence. The results reveal that Proposed_TAODV maintains a higher Packet Delivery Ratio, experiences lower Average End-to-End Delay, and achieves greater Throughput compared to the benchmarks, indicating its superior performance and robustness. The integration of Direct Trust Evaluation, Indirect Trust Evaluation, and Trust Aggregation methods into the AODV protocol clearly enhances the MANET's resilience to security threats, establishing the Proposed_TAODV as a promising approach for securing MANETs against various forms of attacks and network disruptions.

Energy and Mobility Models based Performance Evaluation in MANET

Mobile ad hoc networks are constituted with randomly moving nodes and movement of these nodes is depended upon moving model used in the network. Performance of the network directly depends on the movements and energy consumed in a specific time period by the nodes. Also performance of the protocol used for communication depends on the type of mobility model used by that specific protocol. In this paper, performance of AODV (Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector) routing protocol have been evaluated in respect of five mobility models Random Way Point Mobility Model, Manhattan Grid Mobility Model, Gauss Markov Mobility Model, Random Direction Mobility Model, RPGM (Reference Point Group Mobility)). Performance metrics are considered as: average energy consumption and average residual energy. By varying the network connections, speed of the nodes, and node densities, in different scenarios, routing protocol has been simulated in network simulator 2. Simulation results show that reference point group mobility model is best suitable model as compared to other mobility models for AODV protocol in terms of energy consumption.

Performance Improvement of AODV in Wireless Networks using Reinforcement Learning Algorithms

This paper investigates the application of reinforcement learning (RL) techniques to enhance the performance of the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). MANETs are self-configuring networks consisting of mobile nodes that communicate without the need for a centralized infrastructure. AODV is a widely used routing protocol in MANETs due to its reactive nature, which reduces overhead and conserves energy. This research explores three popular Reinforcement Learning algorithms: SARSA, Q-Learning and Deep Q-Network (DQN) to optimize the AODV protocol's routing decisions. The RL agents are trained to learn the optimal routing paths by interacting with the network environment, considering factors such as link quality, node mobility, and traffic load. The experiments are conducted using network simulators to evaluate the performance improvements achieved by the proposed RL-based enhancements. The results demonstrate significant enhancements in various performance metrics, including reduced end-to-end delay, increased packet delivery ratio, and improved throughput. Furthermore, the RL-based approaches exhibit adaptability to dynamic network conditions, ensuring efficient routing even in highly mobile and unpredictable MANET scenarios. This study offers valuable insights into harnessing RL techniques for improving the efficiency and reliability of routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks.

AODV-EOCW: An Energy-Optimized Combined Weighting AODV Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks.

The Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) is a routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and other wireless ad hoc networks. The vanilla AODV protocol is simple and easy to implement because it only uses the hop count as a routing metric. Single-metric route determination also causes problems, such as network congestion and energy exhaustion, which limit the usage of AODV in resource-limited applications. To solve these problems, the authors propose a new routing protocol that combines the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), the entropy weight method (EWM), and AODV. The proposed protocol uses energy, congestion, and the hop count as metrics and weights these three metrics using AHP and EWM. To address the importance of energy in applications, such as drones, the proposed protocol chooses different comparison matrices for AHP at different node residual energy levels. Finally, the node chooses the best route link according to the score (sum of weighted metrics). It is also suitable for wireless sensor networks because the proposed protocol considers the residual energy of the node. The simulation results show that the improved routing protocol can effectively reduce the average end-to-end delay and energy consumption and prolong the lifetime of the whole network.

An investigation on applicability of Ad-hoc routing protocols in Fog-assisted smart health care system

Cloud computing is widely adopted as it provides real-time services to users on a respectable scale in alignment with pay-per-use models. The heterogeneity and lively characteristics of the cloud network's components make failure inevitable. The failure also has an impact on the cloud service's dependability and accessibility. A computer paradigm called fog brings cloud computing services closer to edge hardware. Fog computing is being used more and more in applications that require faster real-time services, and the healthcare industry has embraced it heavily due to the urgent need to save lives. This work is aimed to investigate the suitable ad-hoc routing protocol for fog-assisted smart health monitoring system. By simulating with the network simulator NS-2 and using throughput, latency, and packet delivery ratio (PDR) as assessment criteria, the effectiveness of routing protocols is assessed. The protocols Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector (AODV), Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), and Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) are being tested. The AODV exhibits encouraging results with other comparative protocols.

Trust-based co-operative routing for secure communication in mobile ad hoc networks

The working of a Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) relies on the supportive cooperation among the network nodes. But due to its intrinsic features, a misbehaving node can easily lead to a routing disorder. This paper presents two trust-based routing schemes, namely Trust-based Self-Detection Routing (TSDR) and Trust-based Co-operative Routing (TCOR) designed with an Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol. The proposed work covers a wide range of security challenges, including malicious node identification and prevention, accurate trust quantification, secure trust data sharing, and trusted route maintenance. This brings a prominent solution for mitigating misbehaving nodes and establishing efficient communication in MANET. It is empirically validated based on a performance comparison with the current Evolutionary Self-Cooperative Trust (ESCT) scheme, Generalized Trust Model (GTM), and the conventional AODV protocol. The extensive simulations are conducted against three different varying network scenarios. The results affirm the improved values of eight popular performance metrics overcoming the existing routing schemes. Among the two proposed works, TCOR is more suitable for highly scalable networks; TSDR suits, however, the MANET application better with its small size. This work thus makes a significant contribution to the research community, in contrast to many previous works focusing solely on specific security aspects, and results in a trade-off in the expected values of evaluation parameters and asserts their efficiency.

An Effective Management Model for Data Caching in MANET Environment

A mobile ad-hoc (MANET) network has the main challenge to provide the needed data for the desired mobile nodes. An efficient on request routing protocol for MANET is Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector (AODV), which is based on two main methods: route discovery and route maintenance. Route discovery is the process used to detect a route to the destination from the packet source, while route maintenance is the process used to detect a link failure and repair it. Cooperative caching tends improving data availability in mobile ad-hoc networks, the coordination of cache discovery and cache management strategies is very significant in the cooperative caching of MANETs because requests for data and answers to requested data can be reduced simply due to interference, network congestion, or when a forwarding node is out of reach and the route breaks down. Cooperative cache management is much more complicated in cooperative caching because it also depends on neighbouring nodes to decide what to cache. In this paper, three algorithms were proposed: (1) a combination algorithm for cache admission control based on cache data and location of data to save space and reduce data redundancy, (2) a value-based policy for cache placement and replacement instead of the more common least recently used strategy, depending on metrics that describe cached items to increase the local cache hit ratio, and (3) a combined algorithm for cache consistency that includes time-to-live, pull, and push policies to enhance data availability and system scalability. The proposed algorithm implemented by the NS3 simulation program; which used to create a network using the AODV protocol in several parameters and achieve better system performance.

An Effective Management Model for Data Caching in MANET Environment

A mobile ad-hoc (MANET) network has the main challenge to provide the needed data for the desired mobile nodes. An efficient on request routing protocol for MANET is Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector (AODV), which is based on two main methods: route discovery and route maintenance. Route discovery is the process used to detect a route to the destination from the packet source, while route maintenance is the process used to detect a link failure and repair it. Cooperative caching tends improving data availability in mobile ad-hoc networks, the coordination of cache discovery and cache management strategies is very significant in the cooperative caching of MANETs because requests for data and answers to requested data can be reduced simply due to interference, network congestion, or when a forwarding node is out of reach and the route breaks down. Cooperative cache management is much more complicated in cooperative caching because it also depends on neighbouring nodes to decide what to cache. In this paper, three algorithms were proposed: (1) a combination algorithm for cache admission control based on cache data and location of data to save space and reduce data redundancy, (2) a value-based policy for cache placement and replacement instead of the more common least recently used strategy, depending on metrics that describe cached items to increase the local cache hit ratio, and (3) a combined algorithm for cache consistency that includes time-to-live, pull, and push policies to enhance data availability and system scalability. The proposed algorithm implemented by the NS3 simulation program; which used to create a network using the AODV protocol in several parameters and achieve better system performance.

Secure and efficient data transfer in AODV routing protocol using RSA encryption

Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) are recognised as a key emerging technology for use whenever cellular communications are either infeasible, inefficient, or cost-ineffective. MANETS are composed of nodes that are arranged in a self-organizing manner, without a central device like a switch or router. The nodes communicate with each other over wireless links and cooperate in a distributed fashion. Smartphones are the most ideal network nodes in many scenarios where traditional networks are unavailable, but building a secure network with them is not easy. This paper extensively uses the existing possibilities to build a secure MANET. The designed MANET has been built on an NS3 simulator, with the base protocol being Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) and message encryption is done by using RSA Algorithm. The Secure AODV protocol extension is implemented using the RSA extension.

Performance and Improvement Analysis of the Underwater WSN Using a Diverse Routing Protocol Approach

The planet Earth is the most water-rich place because oceans cover more than 75% of its land area. Because of the extraordinary activities that occur in the depths, we know very little about oceans. Underwater wireless sensors are tools that can continuously transmit data to one of the source sensors while also monitoring and recording the physical and environmental parameters of their surroundings. An underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is the name given to the network created by the collection of these underwater wireless sensors. This particular technology is the most efficient way to analyse performance parameters. A network path is chosen to send traffic by using the routing method, a process that is also known as a protocol. The routing protocols ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV), dynamic source routing (DSR), dynamic manet on demand routing protocol (DYMO), location-aided routing 1 (LAR 1), optimized link state routing (OLSR), source-tree adaptive routing optimum routing approach (STAR-ORA), zone routing protocol (ZRP), and STAR-least overhead routing approach (STAR-LORA) are a few models of routing techniques. By changing the number of nodes in the model and the maximum speed of each node, performance parameters such as average transmission delay, average jitter, percentage of utilisation, and power used in transmit and receive modes are explored. The results obtained using QualNet 7.1 simulator suggest the suitability of routing protocols in the UWSN.

An Optimized and Energy-Efficient Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol Based on Dynamic Forwarding Probability (AODVI)

MANET (mobile ad-hoc network) is a wireless ad-hoc network made up of mobile devices that use peer-to-peer routing to provide network access instead of using a preexisting network infrastructure. Despite the network infrastructure’s simplicity, it faces issues such as changeable connection capacity, dynamic topology, node battery power exhaustion, and inadequate physical security. Broadcasting is a standard MANET approach for sending messages from a source node to all other nodes in the network. Flooding is a frequent method for broadcasting route request (RREQ) packets, which is susceptible to broadcast storms. The high retransmission rate is caused by the standard flooding technique, which causes media congestion and packet collisions, which can drastically reduce throughput and network performance. In a mobile ad-hoc network, efficient broadcasting focuses on selecting a compact forward node set while assuring broadcast coverage. The goal is to find a limited number of forward nodes that will provide complete coverage. In this paper, we propose an optimized and energy-efficient routing protocol for MANET (mobile ad-hoc network) based on dynamic forwarding probability in general and AODV (ad hoc on-demand distance vector) in particular, in which the route request packets are randomly controlled to increase the network lifetime and reduce packet loss in the flooding algorithm. We tested and assessed the results of our proposed solution using various network performance factors after implementing and integrating it into NS-2. According to simulation findings, our proposed technique effectively reduced route request propagation messages (RREQ). The suggested technique is more efficient, has a longer network lifetime, and uniformly utilizes node residual energy, enhancing network throughput and minimizing routing overhead when compared to regular and modified AODV protocols.

Interpretation and Investigations of Topology Based Routing Protocols Applied in Dynamic System of VANET

The intelligent transportation system is necessary for smart connection among vehicles and roadways equipment. Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET) where vehicles are linked together through a wireless link is an emerging research area and gaining attention for this smart connection where each vehicle is a node in the ad-hoc network consists of groups of stationary or moving vehicles. This dynamic system of VANET provides an infrastructure that builds new solution for safety and comfort but this implementation presents a hurdle in the selection and designing of a routing protocol which is capable of providing reliable and efficient transportation of packets. The prior objective of this research is to select and suggest reliable routing protocol and gives a performance assessment of the topology based protocol’s properties in terms of high-density dynamic systems of vehicles i.e., Ad Hoc on-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), Optimized Link State Routing Protocol, Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), and Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector on the grounds of simulation parameters (packet delivery ratio (PDR), overhead (OH), throughput ratio (TR)). The performance is evaluated using network simulator and mobility simulator the Simulation of Urban Mobility. The result shows that in case of TR and OH, protocol DSR outperforms but in case of PDR, protocol AODV outperforms. From the above, conclusion is that this research will assist the researchers in selecting the better routing protocol in the implementation of dynamic system of VANET infrastructure.

Improvement and Optimization of a Mobile Multi-agent AODV Routing Protocol

<p>In the scenario of node failure in mobile multi-agent, Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) rout-ing protocol fails in network information transmission due to the damage of communication link. In addi-tion, the existing AODV multipath routing protocol node load balancing mechanism is imperfect. In order to solve the low network survivability caused by the above problems, an improved responsive multipath routing protocol MD_AODV (Multipath Destroy-resistance AODV) is proposed. The protocol is opti-mized in three aspects: multi-channel concurrency mechanism, node load balancing mechanism and shortest path maintenance mechanism. The simulation analysis of the modified AODV multipath routing protocol is realized on OPNENT simulation platform. The simulation results show that compared with AODV protocol, the improved multipath routing protocol can enhance the utilization of network re-sources and has better link redundancy. Moreover, the modified routing protocol not only enhances the reliability and fault tolerance of the path, but also increases the network aggregation bandwidth. </p> <p> </p>

AODVMO: A Security Routing Protocol using One-Time Password Authentication Mechanism based on Mobile Agent

Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocols is one of the most popular reactive protocol used for Mobile Ad hoc Network and is a target of many Denial-of-Service attack types. In this article, we propose a solution for Initialization and Providing the OTP based on Mobile Agent (IPOM). We also propose a Security Routing Protocol using One-Time Password Authentication Mechanism based on Mobile Agent (AODVMO) by extending the original AODV protocol and integrating IPOM solution. Analysis results confirm that AODVMO can prevent almost current routing protocol attack types, such as Blackhole / Sinkhole, Grayhole, Whirlwind, and Wormhole types. Using NS2, we evaluate the packet overhead for providing OTP, the security performance on random waypoint network topology under Blackhole attacks and the effect of security mechanism to the original protocol. Simulation results show that the proposed solution works well, the performance of AODVMO is good under Blackhole attacks, and slightly reduced when integrating the security mechanism in scenarios without attacks.