Actual Water Consumption Research Articles

Basic Principles of a DSS Tool Developed to Prioritize NRW Reduction Measures in Water Pipe Networks

Non-revenue water (NRW) in urban water distribution networks is a very demanding task to handle. NRW impacts are economic (lost revenues), environmental (water and energy losses) and social (inefficient water pricing policies not based on the actual water consumption profile/patterns). To deal with NRW, water utilities turn to water audit tools and water loss control methods. In this context, WATERLOSS project (2G-MED09-445) designed a Decision support system (DSS) tool to help water utilities reduce NRW, applying the most cost effective NRW reduction measure(s). The present paper presents the architecture of the DSS tool developed to classify and evaluate NRW control methods available (conventional and proposed ones). The DSS platform includes the DSS tool, which: (a) proposes a list of prioritized NRW reduction measures; (b) evaluates the network’s performance variables and indicators; (c) compares and benchmarks water distribution networks performances; (d) manages the registry of NRW reduction measures; and (e) induces the measures prioritized for any specific system.

A handy irrigation management method through meteorological data. Case study in N. Greece

<div> <p>Crop irrigation, especially in irrigation networks, often consumes larger quantities of irrigation water than necessary since most of the times irrigation is carried out empirically and not based on actual crop requirements. The aim of this work is the management of irrigation water though the use of meteorological data. This approach was utilized for the first time in Greece and applied in a pilot area of about 6,000 ha at the Local Organization of Land Reclamation in Nigrita. The method is based on accurate calculation of daily evapotranspiration of the common cultivations at the area (maize, cotton, alfalfa), using meteorological data. Thus irrigation is organized based on actual water consumption of the crops ensuring the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of their products.</p> </div> <p> </p>

Using Smart Meters for Household Water Consumption Feedback: Knowns and Unknowns

A range of adaptive strategies are needed to mitigate the growing threats to water security. Demand management will play a central role in adaptation. The proliferation of smart metering provides a means for utilities to better quantify end user demand, and to provide consumption feedback to consumers in (near) real-time. Such feedback can help close the gap between perceived and actual water consumption. However, relatively few studies have considered the effectiveness of feedback in promoting water saving behavior. This paper evaluates the evidence for the effectiveness of water consumption feedback technology in promoting water saving behavior.

Prediction of Water Consumption in Hospitals Based on a Modified Grey GM (0, 1∣sin) Model of Oscillation Sequence: The Example of Wuhan City

Water shortage is one of the main factors limiting urban construction and development. Scientific forecasting of water consumption is an important approach for the rational allocation of water resources. Taking the hospitals in Wuhan City as an example and basing the analysis on the characteristics of actual water consumption, we proposed a modified grey GM (0, 1∣sin) model of oscillation sequence. Using the grey theory, the variable weight-strengthening buffer operator (VWSBO) was introduced into this model to weaken the interference of the disturbance term on the data sequence. The actual quarterly total water consumption data for hospitals in Wuhan City during the period from 2010 to 2012 were used to verify the effectiveness and practicality of this modified grey GM (0, 1∣sin) model in predicting water consumption. In terms of the model’s fitting performance, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of the modified model was 3.77%, indicating a higher prediction accuracy than the traditional grey GM (0, 1∣sin) model of oscillation sequences. Therefore, the modified grey GM (0, 1∣sin) model we established in this study can provide a scientific reference for administrative departments to forecast water consumption.

Calculating and Modeling of an Indoor Water Consumption Factor in Mosul City, Iraq

The growth of urban areas and constant need for potable water services, have highlighted the importance of accurate water consumption estimates for effective municipal water services infrastructure planning and design. A clear understanding of the drivers of residential water demand is essential in managing water resources appropriate as potable water. In this paper, a total of (1682) daily household water demand computations were carried out in order to calculate the actual indoor water consumption factor in the city of Mosul. The impacts of specific days of the week family size, water supply continuity and, seasonal variations (winter and summer) on water consumption were also considered. Results revealed that the daily average water consumption factors were (126  65 Lcpd) in a winter season, (235  64 Lcpd) in a summer season and the overall water consumption factor for the area was (180  84 Lcpd). Water consumption was also found to be significantly correlated with explanatory variables. Seasonal variation plays the biggest role in controlling the water consumption factor followed by water supply continuity, then family size (negative effect) and in the last order specific days (weekends). General models to explain the effect of all of these parameters on the per capita water consumption were also derived in this paper.

A novel mixed method smart metering approach to reconciling differences between perceived and actual residential end use water consumption

Studies have shown that householders’ perceptions of their water use are often not well matched with their actual water use. There has been less research however, investigating whether this bias is related to specific categories of end use and/or specific types of socio-demographic and socio-psychological household profiles. A high resolution smart metering study producing a detailed end use event registry as well as psycho-social and socio-demographic surveys, stock inventory audits and self-reported water diaries was completed for 252 households located in South-east Queensland, Australia. The study examined the contributions of end uses to total water use for each group that self-identified as “low”, “medium” or “high” water users. A series of univariate tests (i.e. analysis of variance) were conducted to examine a range of variables that characterise each self-identified water usage group including age, income, percentage of water efficient stock (e.g. low-flow taps), family size and composition and water conservation intentions and attitudes. The level of information consumers receive on their water bill as well as the diurnal end use patterns were also examined. The paper concludes with a discussion of the general characteristics (i.e. income, age, gender and family composition) of groups that tended to overestimate or underestimate their water use and how this knowledge can be used to inform demand management policy such as targeted community education programmes and community-based social marketing. Further, the potential for positive economic and sustainable development outcomes from this research is also discussed.

Residential potable and recycled water end uses in a dual reticulated supply system

The need to understand, model and predict urban water consumption is paramount, particularly with urban densities increasing throughout the world. Specifically, it is vital to determine potable water savings, daily demand patterns and actual end use water consumption experienced in diversified water supply schemes in order to verify planning estimates and justify the future application of such schemes. This paper details the results of a mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) end use investigation, pre- and post-commissioning of recycled water, in a dual reticulated supply scheme in the master planned Pimpama Coomera region, Gold Coast, Australia. Recycled water, supplied for irrigation and toilet flushing, accounted for 59.1 L/p/d or 32.2% of total consumption post-commissioning, with irrigation being 28.9 L/p/d or 15.7%. Furthermore, developed end use diurnal patterns demonstrate the unique daily demand consumption within the region and significant reductions in peak potable water demand when compared with single reticulated supply areas. The paper concludes with discussions of implications for better informed water services infrastructure planning activities.

Современный водохозяйственный баланс реки Урал на территории Российской Федерации

The paper contains analysis of the water resources use current indicators for the Ural River basin. It quotes an assessment of the permissible and actual irrevocable water consumption in the Russian part of the basin. An assessment of magnitude of the runoff that is supplied to the Republic of Kazakhstan in comparison with natural and ecological runoff was made according to the outcomes of the developed water/economic balances.

How much water is enough? Domestic metered water consumption and free basic water volumes: The case of Eastwood, Pietermaritzburg

This article is based on an in-depth case study of urban water services to poor households in the community of Eastwood, Pietermaritzburg, in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, for the period 2005-2007. The article adopts a mixedmethodological approach. Despite government progress in delivering water infrastructure post-1994, ability to pay for the service limited access. The free basic water policy, initiated by national Government in 2001, sought to provide all citizens, but particularly the poor, with a basic supply of free water. The concessions were envisaged to improve public health, gender and equity, affordability, and as an instrument of post-apartheid redress and poverty alleviation. Once free basic water (FBW) was declared a new imperative for local government the debate on exactly how much was enough, why 6 kℓ was chosen, the structure of the offering and broader state intentions opened up. This article positions the FBW offering within the prevailing international discourse on ‘need’ calculation. Through the exploration of actual water consumption patterns of urban poor households, the ideological assumptions and ‘scientific’ calculations underpinning this discourse were found to have ignored the fluidness of use as well as the value of water beyond mere physiological need. In this regard, access to FBW was conditioned on a small household size and further predicated the modification of normal water activities and lifestyle and carried a disproportionate social cost. The free basic volume of 6 kℓ was found to have no resonance with actual water volumes consumed by the majority of Eastwood households.Keywords: free basic water, indigent, basic water requirements, water usage, municipal water services, urban poor household

Trend analysis of the water requirements, consumption and deficit of field crops in Europe

Recent trends in European seasonal weather conditions and related crop water requirements, crop water consumption and crop water deficits were studied using the Crop Growth Monitoring System of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission for the period 1976–2005. Soft wheat was selected as a typical winter crop. Sugar beet was selected as a typical spring/summer crop. First we analyzed the spatial and temporal variation of the average seasonal mean temperature and the average seasonal estimated global radiation, subsequently the spatial and temporal variation of the simulated seasonal water requirement, water consumption and water deficit of wheat and sugar beets were studied. We found that the weather pattern changes are not uniformly distributed across Europe. A seasonal dependence was found. The impacts of the changing weather patterns differ per crop and per region. In various European regions the wheat water requirement showed a downward trend which can be attributed to a shorter growing season as a result of higher temperatures in spring. This downward trend can also be attributed to a lower evaporative demand in winter and spring as a result of diminishing global radiation values. Only a limited number of regions showed an upward trend. For sugar beets the Mediterranean regions of France and Spain showed a downward trend in the water requirement which can be attributed to a lower evaporative demand due to reduced solar radiation in summer and autumn. Large areas with an upward trend in the water requirement are spread across the rest of Europe. These upward trends can be attributed to higher temperatures in summer and autumn. The regional trend patterns in actual crop water consumption and water deficit are less distinct than found for the crop water requirements. Changes in these variables can be attributed to the combined effect of variations in crop water requirements and rainfall.

Combining remote sensing and economic analysis to support decisions that affect water productivity

In this paper, an innovative method—that combines a technical and socio-economic analysis—is presented to assess the implications of policy decisions on water productivity. In the technical part, the variability in crop water productivity (CWP) is analyzed on the basis of actual water consumption and associated biomass production using the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL). This generates input for the socio-economic analysis, which aims to quantify the foregone economic water productivity (EWP) of policy decisions to allocate water in a social optimal way. The basis for arguments to transfer water between categories of users will be strengthened and be more objective when the productivity in existing and alternative uses is known. The usefulness of such an approach is shown in the South African part of the Inkomati Basin, where according to the Water Act, water has to be reserved for basic human needs and to protect aquatic ecosystems. The opportunity costs, in terms of foregone EWP, of decisions to divert water away from agriculture are assessed. The results show that diverting water away from crops with a low CWP is not always the most cost-effective way in terms of foregone EWP.

Conserve to Enhance—voluntary municipal water conservation to support environmental restoration

Conserve to Enhance offers an innovative municipal water conservation mechanism designed to motivate consumers to conserve water and set aside funds to purchase water for environmental needs. The concept and program elements were developed with the collaboration of utility representatives, elected officials, interested citizens, as well as more than 40 experts in water and environmental concerns. Under the proposed voluntary program, a baseline water use is established for participants on the basis of actual water consumption. Even if participants reduce their water consumption, they agree to continue to pay this baseline amount, with any monetary savings accrued by their conservation efforts going to the Conserve to Enhance program. These funds are then used to purchase water for environmental enhancements such as irrigation for revegetation efforts. The authors offer a set of considerations and recommendations for the potential development of a program, including strategies for measuring and accounting for conservation, water utility involvement, and development of decision‐making bodies.

Optimum Supportable Global Population: Water Accounting and Dietary Considerations

In this paper we develop a novel, comprehensive method for estimating the global human carrying capacity in reference to food production factors and levels of food consumption. Other important interrelated dimensions of carrying capacity such as energy, non-renewable resources, and ecology are not considered here and offer opportunities for future work. Use of grain production (rain-fed/irrigated), animal product production (grazing/factory farm), diet pattern (grain/animal products), and a novel water accounting method (demand/supply) based on actual water consumption and not on withdrawal, help resolve uncertainties to find better estimates. Current Western European food consumption is used as a goal for the entire world. Then the carrying capacity lies in the range of 4.5–4.7 billion but requiring agricultural water use increase by 450–530% to 4725–5480 km3, the range based on different estimates of available water. The cost of trapping and conveying such water, will run 4.5–13.5 trillion over 50 years requiring an annual spending increase of 150–400%, straining the developing world where most of the population increase is expected. We reconfirm estimates in the literature using a dynamic model. ‘Corner scenarios’ with extreme optimistic assumptions were analyzed using the reasoning support software system GLOBESIGHT. With a hypothetical scenario with a mainly vegetarian diet (grazing only with 5% animal product), the carrying capacity can be as high as 14 billion. Ecological deterioration that surely accompanies such a population increase would negatively impact sustainable population. Using our approach the impact of ecological damage could be studied. Inter- and intra-regional inequities are other considerations that need to be studied.

Actual Water Consumption and Water Management in Pddy Field : Referring to the Thailand Gravity Irrigation District (2)

Actual Water Consumption and Water Management in Pddy Field : Referring to the Thailand Gravity Irrigation District (2)

On the variation of water resource structure in the Lower Yellow River

In view of river functions and the Minimum Water Demand for River Ecosystem (MWDRE), the water resources in the Lower Yellow River is further divided into three portions, i.e. water available for ecosystem (WE), water exploitable for socioeconomic purposes (WS) and excess flood water (WF). Corresponding conceptions and practical significances are expounded in details. The annual amount of the three portions of water resources from 1950 to 2001 is worked out on the basis of the daily hydrologic data, and the division of different portions is discussed. The results indicate that although the essential water demand for river functions is considered preferentially, the amount of the WE has decreased dramatically while its proportion increased gradually since the 1950s, and the shortage to the MWDRE increased markedly; both the amount and the proportion of the WS decreased notably. Since the 1990s, the actual water consumption for socioeconomic purposes in the lower reaches of the river basin has already exceeded the maximum amount of the WS and has to take over the WE which is already insufficient, hence not only the normal river functions are further disturbed and the river course shrinks greatly, but also the proportion and potential danger of the WF show no decreasing tendency in spite of the sharp decrease of upstream runoff.

Relating crop water consumption to irrigation water supply by remote sensing

A new set of irrigation performance indicators based on remote-sensing estimates of evapotranspiration is introduced. These ‘evapotranspiration indicators’ are the relative evapotranspiration or crop stress and the water efficiency as well as their uniformity. With a remote-sensing evapotranspiration algorithm (SEBAL) maps of actual crop water consumption are derived. These maps are one of the inputs in the evapotranspiration indicators, together with GIS data (digitized irrigation unit boundaries) and field data (irrigation delivery schedule and water flow). This approach is applied on the Rio Tunuyan irrigation scheme, Mendoza, Argentina, which is served by surface water and privately owned ground water pumps. A homogeneous pattern of actual crop water consumption is detected from the highest irrigation level till the lowest (farm) level (coefficient of variance from 8.6% to 6.1% and 14.0% of secondary, tertiary and pixel level, respectively). Considering that a rotational irrigation schedule at tertiary and farm level is present, the results indicate that ground water supply through extraction and capillary rise equalize the spatial patterns in crop water consumption. The latter is proved by a comparison between (i) the areal water consumption from remote-sensing measurements, (ii) the areal water supply and (iii) additional field information on ground water extraction and capillary rise.

Modeling Indicators of Drought and Analysis of Its Changing Process

There is a need for developing indicators of social awareness against drought which is considered tobe a part of the regional infrastructure for water resources management. This paper attempts to model the invisible property of “social awareness”by measuring the area related newspaper articles in case study areas which have experienced droughts. This is accomplished by finding the relationship between actual water consumption and the social awareness. Then, comparisons between the three case study areas are made to illustrate how the proposed models can explain the common and distinct characteristics of citizen's social awareness and behavior against drought.

The Relative Water Demand of Five Urban Tree Species

The relative water demand (RWD) of containergrown seedlings of red maple, green ash, Washington hawthorn, honeylocust and flowering crabapple was determined for the period mid-May through August by comparing water consumption values and potential evapotranspiration rates with growth rates. While RWD for red maple was high, actual water consumption based on changes in plant size (water use index, WUI) was quite low, indicating efficient use of available moisture. RWD for green ash was high, but WUI was also high indicating relative inefficiency in utilizing available water resources. RWD values for Washington hawthorn, honeylocust and flowering crabapple were all lowerthan those for maple or ash, while WUI values for these species were intermediate between maple and ash. In general, growth rate was not correlated with RWD. However, actual water consumption rates did correlate well with potential evapotranspiration as determined by the Thomthwaite equation.

Analysis of Future Water Needs for Different Sectors in Syria

ABSTRACT Water demands for different sectors in Syria have been increasing steadily and at a high rate, and it is expected that by the year 2010 the country will face a deficit in its water balance. To define the importance and the evolution of the projected water shortage, an analysis of the future water needs for the domestic, agricultural, and industrial sectors is performed. The actual water consumption in Syria for different sectors is estimated at about 12 billion m3/yr, 90 per cent of which are consumed to irrigate about 700 x 103 ha. At the completion of the currently planned irrigation projects, which are expected to be finished by the year 2020, the irrigated areas will amount to 1350 x 103 ha, and will consume 20.5 billion m3/yr. Sixty per cent of the new areas brought under irrigation will rely on the waters of the Euphrates River and its tributary Al-Khabour Within the same period, the Syrian population will reach approximately 32 million inhabitants who will consume 3.5 billion m3/yr for domestic, municipal, and industrial uses. The available water resources in Syria are estimated at about 23.5 billion m3, taking into account the Syrian share of the Euphrates River (13 billion m3). Ten per cent of this amount is lost by evaporation. Therefore, it is expected that by the year 2010, Syria will reach an equilibrium in its water balance. However starting from this date, it will experience an ever increasing water deficit. This situation will curtail future development plans and lead to decreased standards of living. It could further be a serious source of conflict in the Middle East if no agreement is reached regarding the allocation of Euphrates' water

Encouraging Water Saving: the Role of Knowledge, Attitudes, and Intention

Few would doubt the need, in today's world, to promote behaviours that actively conserve environmental resources. At a general level, this often involves encouraging behaviours that involve a short-term cost for the individual in order to avoid a long-term negative outcome for the community. Examples of such behaviour are, taking the trouble to turn off lights to save electricity and fixing leaking taps to conserve water. It is these latter kinds of behaviours, namely those associated with the efficient use of water resources, which are the focus of this paper.Faced with the high economic and practical costs of attempting to supply unlimited amounts of water for the Melbourne metropolitan area, the Board of Works has sought, by a number of means, to persuade its consumers to use water more efficiently. One aspect of its strategy was to promote water conservation within the educational curriculum by designing various educational materials and programs for different school levels. These and other promotional materials were made available to schools in the Melbourne metropolitan area in 1988. Prior to the distribution of this material, the data reported in this paper were gathered as the first stage of a longitudinal evaluation of the Board's education strategy.The assumption underlying the Board of Works' educational program was that behaviour change is preceded by changes in knowledge. For example, it was assumed that a person, knowing something about the water cycle, and the system by which water is fed into our taps, would believe that it is important not to waste water. The result would be active water conservation in daily life. Some basis for this assumption has been provided by the report on domestic water use in Perth, Western Australia (Metropolitan Water Authority, 1985), where knowledge and attitudes were found to be predictors of actual water consumption. Such an assumption is based in a general way on a cognitive or information processing model of behaviour change, in which changes in behaviour are seen as proceeding from changes in relevant information or knowledge. This cognitive model is the basis for many social education programs both in schools and in the community. For example, the Quit Campaign and the AIDS campaign have both used strategies that aimed to inform the public about particular health-related behaviours.