Actual Use Of Strategies Research Articles

Decoding Success: Investigating the Impact of Trait and State Strategies on Reading Test Performance among Thai High School Learners

The field of second language (L2) acquisition has increasingly emphasized learner strategies, cognitive and metacognitive methods, as crucial factors in individual differences and reading comprehension. Grounded in Bachman and Palmer’s communicative language ability (CLA) model, this study investigates how strategic competence in cognitive and metacognitive strategies impacts reading comprehension among Thai high school students. By employing quantitative methods, including structural equation modeling (SEM), the study explores how trait strategies (perceived strategic knowledge) and state strategies (actual strategy use) influence reading test performance. The research involved 685 students from a public high school who completed Likert scale questionnaires about their strategy use before and after comprehension tests. Results reveal that state strategies are employed more frequently than trait strategies and show a significant positive correlation with reading performance. While cognitive strategies like comprehension and memory are critical for understanding text content, metacognitive strategies like planning and monitoring improve learners’ ability to regulate their strategic application. However, evaluation strategies were found to be less frequently used. The study’s findings advocate for balanced training in both cognitive and metacognitive strategies to bridge the gap between strategic knowledge and effective application, thereby empowering learners to become more autonomous and proficient readers. Further research should investigate strategic competence in different cultural contexts, employ longitudinal studies, and expand the research to other language skills to gain a comprehensive understanding of L2 learners’ strategies.

75 Examining the Role of Executive Functions on the Intention-Behavior Gap of Alcohol Harm Reduction Strategy Use

Objective:The Temporal Self-Regulation Theory (Hall and Fong, 2007) proposes that initiation and maintenance of effortful health behaviors relies on executive functions (EF: cognitive abilities associated with goal-directed behavior). Alcohol harm reduction strategies are health behaviors that aim to minimize the likelihood or severity of consequences associated with alcohol use. Some drinkers have the intention to drink safely but lack the ability to effectively initiate and execute the harm reduction behaviors. Executive functions may be one mechanism that helps explain the gap between safe drinking intentions and behavior. Specific components of EF may be differentially associated with alcohol harm reduction strategy use; working memory and set-shifting may be especially important in planning and following through with alcohol harm reduction strategies, and individuals with greater working memory capacity and set-shifting abilities may be more successful in implementing strategies that require preplanning and have a focus on altering typical the manner of drinking (e.g., not mixing types of alcohol). Inhibition may be important for resisting temptations that are inconsistent with safe drinking goals, and those with stronger inhibitory control may be more likely to follow through with strategies that require withholding responses despite desire to engage in the behavior, such as stopping or limiting drinking (e.g., not exceeding a predetermined number of drinks).Participants and Methods:Using ecological momentary assessment, the current study explored the extent to which an intention-behavior gap in harm reduction strategy use exists among college student drinkers (n=77), and investigated how potential individual differences in EF (i.e., working memory, set-shifting, and inhibition) were associated with translating intentions of drinking safely into action. Daily monitoring assessments contained brief measures of intention to use harm reduction strategies, actual strategy use, and alcohol-related behaviors, and were assessed daily for twenty-one days.Results:Multilevel model analyses revealed that although intention to use strategies predicted actual strategy use, measures of EF did not significantly moderate the relationship. Exploratory analyses indicated that set-shifting significantly moderated the intention-behavior gap for a subset of harm reduction strategies that relies more heavily on modifying behavior during a drinking event. Set-shifting did not significantly moderate the intention-behavior gap for a subset of strategies that relies more heavily on pre-planning before the drinking event.Conclusions:Findings from the current study suggests that those who plan to use strategies typically follow through regardless of individual differences in EF. Efforts to increase intention to drink safely can be incorporated into existing alcohol prevention and intervention programs, which would likely lead to increased use of harm reduction strategies and decreased alcohol-related consequences.

Are Learners Aware of Their Strategy Use? Investigating EFL Learners’ Self-Perceived Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies with the MARSI-R

This study investigated EFL learners’ self-perceived metacognitive strategy use with the revised Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI-R). Data collection followed two steps. In the first step, 213 EFL learners responded to the inventory twice (before and after a reading comprehension task). In the second step, 81 out of the 213 participants answered an open survey inquiring learners’ perception and changes of perception of metacognitive reading strategy use during the reading process. Results indicate that learners’ self-perceived strategy use changed significantly after performing the reading task. Learners’ feedbacks in the survey show that learners’ self-perceived strategy use might not reflect the actual use of strategies. This inconsistency between self-perceived reading strategy use and the actual strategy use might mislead learners in their foreign language learning. Further empirical studies are needed to validate the instrument and explore classroom instructions that help learners better understand their actual strategy use during the reading process.

Does a self-report questionnaire predict strategy use in mathematical problem solving among elementary school children? Importance of question format depending on the grade

Predicting the actual performance of strategy use with self-report questionnaires is difficult, especially among elementary school children. Nevertheless, due to the simplicity of self-report questionnaires, it is desirable to identify one that can predict children’s performance of actual strategy use. This study investigated whether a self-report questionnaire on the frequency of using a diagram strategy in mathematical problem-solving can predict children’s actual diagram use by manipulating the question type (i.e., free description, multiple-choice, and Likert scale). We also examine the question types that can better predict the actual strategy use in elementary school children. Fourth- to sixth-grade children were asked to complete both a questionnaire, which asked about their daily use of a diagram strategy through three question types and a test consisting of math word problems. We found that when children were asked to self-report their strategy using a Likert scale, they were predicted to use diagrams during the test regardless of grades. Furthermore, the older the children became, the more effective it was to ask them to self-report in a free description type. These results suggest that appropriate question types can make it possible to measure actual strategy-use behaviors through self-report measures, even for elementary school children.

Investigating Test-Taking Strategies in Listening Assessment: A Comparative Study of Eye-Tracking and Self-Report Questionnaires

ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the test-taking strategies needed for successful completion of a lecture-based listening test by employing self-reported test-taking strategy use, actual strategy use measured via eye-tracking, and test scores. In this study, participants’ gaze behavior (measured by fixation and visit duration and frequency) were recorded while they completed two listening tests of three stages each: pre-listening, in which participants (n = 66) previewed question stems; while-listening, in which participants simultaneously listened to the recording and filled in their answers; and post-listening, in which they had time to review their answers and make necessary amendments. Following the listening tests, participants filled up a posttest questionnaire that asked about their strategy use in each of the three stages. Rasch measurement, t-test, and path analysis were performed on test scores, questionnaire results, and gaze patterns. Results suggest that gaze measures (visit duration and fixation frequency) predicted participants’ final test performance, while self-reports had moderate predicting power. The findings of this study have implications for the cognitive validity of listening tests, listening test design and pedagogical approaches in building listening competence.

Digital reading in a second or foreign language: A systematic literature review

This systematic literature review focuses on digital reading in a second or foreign language. The reviewed literature (N = 31, published between 2008 and 2020) revealed several characteristics of second language digital reading environments, tasks, and readers. First, characteristics of digital environments were availability and choice of authentic texts, degrees of linearity, lay-out characteristics, and integrated tools. Second, task characteristics evolved around different reading purposes, navigating elements, and features of digital texts, information management, and interaction. And third, reader characteristics included language and reading proficiency levels; readers' perceptions of their self-efficacy, locus of control, and of themselves as second language readers; and readers' topic, lexical, and world knowledge. These characteristics seemed to enhance motivation, interaction, and understanding, but posed challenges as well, by demanding additional skills, strategies, time, memory capacity, and concentration. The literature provided divergent insights about digital reading strategy use. The consensus seemed to be that the more one reads in a digital environment in the second language, the more digital reading strategies are used. However, increases in strategy use did not necessarily result in better reading comprehension. This review also revealed discrepancies between perceived and actual strategy use, and between teachers' expectations of strategy use and students' actions. We found that educational contexts were being represented more frequently than others. The research was predominantly explorative and qualitative. Based on these findings, recommendations for future research were made. We recommend a clearer focus on the unique aspects of reading in a second language, on the affordances of digital reading, and on the teachers' perspective. In order to move the research on digital reading in a second language forward, we would also advocate a wider scope and more diversity in research designs.

Exertional Heat-Stroke Management Practices and Intentions Among Secondary School Football Athletic Trainers.

Athletic trainers (ATs) are educated and trained in appropriate exertional heat-stroke (EHS) management strategies, yet disparities may exist between intended and actual uses in clinical practice. To examine the intended and actual uses of EHS management strategies among those who did and those who did not treat patients with suspected cases of EHS during the 2017 high school (HS) American football preseason. Cross-sectional study. Online questionnaire. A total of 1016 ATs who oversaw patient care during the 2017 HS American football preseason. Responding HS ATs recorded whether they had or had not managed patients with suspected EHS events during the 2017 HS American football preseason. Those who had managed patients with suspected cases of EHS reported the management strategies used; those who had not managed such patients described their intended management strategies. For each management strategy, z tests compared the proportions of actual use among ATs who managed patients with suspected EHS with the proportions of intended use among ATs who did not manage such patients. Overall, 124 (12.2%) ATs treated patients with suspected EHS cases during the 2017 HS American football preseason. Generally, the proportions of intended use of management strategies among ATs who did not treat patients with suspected EHS were higher than the actual use of those strategies among ATs who did. For example, ATs who did treat patients with suspected EHS were more likely than those who did not treat such patients to intend to take rectal temperature (19.6% versus 3.2%, P < .001) and immerse the athlete in ice water (90.1% versus 51.6%, P < .001). Inconsistencies occurred between intended and actual use of EHS management strategies. The standard of care for managing patients with suspected cases of EHS was not consistently used in clinical practice, although ATs who did not treat EHS stated they intended to use these management strategies more frequently. Future researchers should identify factors that preclude ATs from using the standard of care when treating patients with suspected cases of EHS.

Coping with EMI (English as a medium of instruction): Mainland China students’ strategies at a university in Macau

ABSTRACT While English as a medium of instruction (EMI) is becoming a widespread institutional practice across the world, how and by what strategies students whose first language is not English cope with EMI is under-represented. Drawing on data gathered through semi-structured interviews and reflective journals from 14 Mainland Chinese EMI learners in a Macau university, this study reports on the strategies used by students to cope with EMI learning. The findings yield empirical supports for the positive role of L1 in EMI learning. The findings call for a critical attention to the role of learner agency and contextual realities in shaping EMI learners’ actual strategy use in contexts.

Predictors of Strategy Engagement for the Prevention and Reduction of Gambling Harm: a Prospective Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Strategies such as behavioural substitution, self-monitoring, social support as well as planning and urge management can assist gamblers to limit or reduce their gambling behaviours. Not all gamblers implement strategies before, during or after gambling, even though the use of strategies is recommended by the gambling and treatment industry. Australian gamblers completed an online survey with follow-up (n = 411) to determine the predictors of intention to use strategies and the actual use of strategies. Results indicated 92% of gamblers attempted at least one strategy to stick to their limits over the 30-day period (median = 30 strategies, IQR = 11 to 56). Gamblers indicated a positive attitude towards strategy engagement and perceived themselves as having control over their use but the role that important others (e.g., family members) could play in strategy implementation warrants further examination. To improve strategy engagement, prevention and intervention programmes should target factors associated with intentions rather than focusing on behaviour.

Is there a correlation between reported language learning strategy use, actual strategy use and achievement?

Este estudo em pequena escala explora toda uma gama possível de uso de estratégias de aprendizagem de língua por habilidade em relação ao sucesso da aprendizagem, dando ênfase à produção escrita. A freqüência registrada do uso de estratégias de aprendizagem de língua é correlacionada com o uso de estratégias realmente utilizadas e com a aferição do desempenho em tarefas comunicativas de conscientização lingüística em contexto de ILE.

Metacognitive Knowledge and Metacognitive Control of Writing Strategy between High- and Low-performing Chinese EFL Writers

This study investigated metacognitive knowledge and control of writing strategy in English among 65 Chinese EFL learners in two argumentative writing tasks. Metacognitive knowledge was measured using a questionnaire written in simple present tense. Metacognitive control required writers to respond to a questionnaire written in simple past tense immediately following completion of each writing task according to the actual strategy use in the writing tasks. Students were grouped into high- and low-performing EFL writers using one standard error above or below the Mean scores of the writing tasks. One-way ANOVA was conducted on the four kinds of writing strategies (i.e., planning, cognitive, monitor-control, and evaluating). We found that while there were no differences on any type of the writing strategies for metacognitive knowledge, the two groups differed in the actual writing strategy use on each occasion. For the more familiar and easier writing topic, high- and low-performing students differed only in cognitive writing strategies. For the less familiar and more challenging writing task, high-achievers adopted significantly more planning, cognitive, and evaluating strategies than low-achievers. This research supported for distinction between metacognitive knowledge and control in EFL writing.

Verbal Reports of Proficient Readers In Coping With Unfamiliar Words

The present study reports the actual strategy use of good readers when they face hindrance in the form of unfamiliar words. Eight undergraduates majoring in English at Surabaya State University performed think-aloud while reading two texts to find out how they coped with such difficulties. The verbal protocol indicated that half of the participants mainly relied on a bilingual (English-Indonesian) dictionary to attack unfamiliar words, and only one of them preferred to use a monolingual (English-English) one. Two of them employed context cues to infer the meaning of the words, while one participant combined the use of context cues and a monolingual dictionary as the major strategy. All but one of the participants skipped some of lexical items whose meaning was unknown to them, especially when these words did not have a key contribution to the meaning of the whole text.

Impacts of an in-service education program on promoting language development in young children: A pilot study with early childhood educators

Early childhood educators (ECEs) play an important role in fostering language development in young children. In-service education, led by speech-language pathologists (SLPs), has a potential role in educating ECEs about language development. In this pilot study, 42 ECEs attended an in-service education program and completed pre- and post-questionnaires to explore their perceptions of the impact of the in-service on their knowledge of child language development and language-promoting strategies and their confidence in this knowledge. To explore ECEs’ actual use of strategies, five ECEs also participated in pre- and post-video recordings of their interactions with children. ECEs’ knowledge of language development and language-promoting strategies increased post-program. Confidence in this knowledge and awareness of their roles also increased. Although not statistically significant, video recordings captured an overall increase in ECEs use of seven of the eleven rated language-promoting strategies. This pilot study has highlighted potential benefits of SLP-led education programs for ECEs, which is promising given the important role of ECEs in facilitating child language development.

The Use and Benefits of External Memory Aids in Older and Younger Adults

SummaryWe examined the spontaneous use and benefits of external memory aids in older (aged 60–85 years) and younger (aged 17–31 years) adults. In Study 1, participants were or were not given the opportunity to use a memory aid in a phone message recall task. In Study 2, a memory aid was available for one of two similar tasks. Participants' spontaneous use of external memory aids was measured. On the Memory Compensation Questionnaire, older adults reported using external memory aids more frequently but were no more likely than younger adults to take notes on the messages. Older adults benefitted from the availability of notes in both studies; younger adults benefitted when the memory task was more challenging. The results illustrate the value of external memory aids and suggest that older adults may underutilize them. The findings also raise questions about the relation between self‐reported and actual use of strategies in everyday life. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Patterns in elementary school students′ strategic actions in varying learning situations

This study uses log file traces to examine differences between high- and low-achieving students’ strategic actions in varying learning situations. In addition, this study illustrates, in detail, what strategic and self-regulated learning constitutes in practice. The study investigates the learning patterns that emerge in learning situations that are (a) favourable and (b) challenging. It illustrates, in detail, one high- and one low achieving student’s strategic actions in a learning situation that is considered challenging. Elementary school students worked on a science study project for five weeks. During the science project, the students used the gStudy learning environment, which prompted their strategy use and recorded log file traces of their actual strategy use. First, the students were divided into high and low achievers based on their learning gain. Second, gStudy sessions were categorised into either challenging or favourable gStudy sessions based on the students’ situation-specific explanations. Third, the learning patterns that emerged in these gStudy sessions were investigated. The results showed that both high- and low-achieving students adopted similar strategies in favourable learning situations. However, when the learning situation was considered challenging, the low-achieving students used surface-level strategies, whereas the high-achieving students used deep strategies for learning. In addition, the case description demonstrated that activating prior knowledge and setting a clear, task-specific goal for studying preceded the high-achieving students’ selection of deep strategy in action.

Perceived vs. actual strategy use across three oral communication tasks

This study sought to explore differences in strategy use across three oral communication tasks. Twenty-two intermediate level university students carried out three tasks in pairs at three different time periods. After each task, which varied in terms of cognitive, interactional and learner factors (Robinson, International Review of Applied Linguistics 43: 1–32, 2005), they filled in a 37-item strategy questionnaire. Factor analysis grouped strategies into four categories: ‘evaluating and affective’, ‘conversation-flow maintenance’, ‘compensation’ and ‘planning and overmonitoring’. Significant differences were only found for compensation strategies and a few individual strategies across the three tasks. In a qualitative analysis of four case studies, reported strategy use on the questionnaires was compared to strategy use observed in the task performances and stimulated recall sessions. 86% of the strategies reported were confirmed in this way. As for the extent of strategy use reported on the questionnaires, there were consistencies (41%) and discrepancies (38%) with the qualitative data, as well as 21% strategies which were not confirmed. Implications for both research and pedagogy are discussed in light of the results.

Identifying Strategies That Facilitate EFL Learners' Oral Communication: A Classroom Study Using Multiple Data Collection Procedures

This article considers whether the use of specific communication strategies can improve learners' English proficiency in communicative tasks. Japanese college students (n = 62) participated in a 12‐week course of English lessons using a communicative approach with strategy training. To investigate the influence of specific strategy use, their performance on a posttraining conversation test was analyzed through multiple data collection procedures. Transcripts of the test were made and then analyzed in terms of production rate, the number of errors, and actual strategy use. An Oral Communication Strategy Inventory was introduced to elicit participants' communication strategy use for a self‐report questionnaire procedure. These results were compared with participants' retrospective protocol data regarding their oral test performance. The findings confirmed that strategies for maintaining discourse and negotiation of meaning could enhance learners' communicative ability. Yet the students used a relatively small number of examples of modified output, which indicated that they might not have enough opportunities to improve the form of their utterances.

Relative Contributions of Treatment-Related Changes in Communication Skills and Dyadic Coping Skills to the Longitudinal Course of Marriage in the Framework of Marital Distress Prevention

Most prior studies of skill-based preventive interventions for couples compare changes in problem-solving behaviors made by treated couples with those made by control couples. Unexpected findings in these studies highlight the need to examine within-group variability in behavior change among treated couples, alternative behavioral domains, including dyadic support and coping, and partners' intended and actual use of strategies taught in the interventions. A 24-month longitudinal study of 109 couples participating in an 18-hour intervention designed to enhance communication and dyadic coping revealed that marital outcomes are enhanced to the extent that (a) wives increase their positive problem-solving behavior and husbands decrease their negative problem-solving behavior over the course of the intervention, and (b) wives and husbands increase their positive dyadic coping behaviors, and husbands decrease their negative dyadic coping behaviors. Moreover, greater postintervention use of strategies taught in the intervention program produced better outcomes, and wives' improvements in positive and negative dyadic coping strengthened associations between strategy use and relationship satisfaction. Discussion emphasizes the importance of devising interventions that target key interpersonal processes and that motivate participants to display newly acquired behaviors.

Construct validation of Bachman and Palmer's (1996) strategic competence model over time in EFL reading tests

This article reports on a large-scale study that aims to validate the theory of strategic competence proposed by Bachman and Palmer (1996) through the use of structural equation modeling (SEM). The present study examines the relationship of test-takers' long-term strategic knowledge (i.e., trait strategies) and actual strategy use (i.e., state strategies) to second language (L2) reading test performance over time. The data were gathered on two occasions (during the mid-term and final examination periods). Five hundred and sixty-one Thai university test-takers answered a trait strategy use questionnaire prior to the mid-term and final reading achievement tests and, immediately after completing each test, they answered a state strategy use questionnaire. It was found that (1) trait metacognitive strategy use (MSU) directly and strongly affects trait cognitive strategy use (CSU); (2) trait CSU does not greatly affect state CSU; (3) trait MSU directly affects state MSU in a specific context, which in turn directly affects state CSU; and (4) state CSU directly affects a specific language test performance to a varying degree.

Strategies for Resisting Persuasion

This research examines the variety of strategies individuals may use to resist persuasion. In Study 1, participants wrote an essay describing how they respond when faced with a persuasive challenge. Six expected strategies were reliably identified in the essays: attitude bolstering, counterarguing, negative affect, selective exposure, social validation, and source derogation. A novel strategy, asserting confidence that nothing could change one's mind, was also revealed. Studies 2 and 3 had individuals rate the likelihood of having each of these 7 responses in defense of their attitudes toward abortion or the death penalty, respectively. As predicted, message-oriented strategies (i.e., attitude bolstering and counterarguing) were reported as most likely to be used, and less socially acceptable strategies (e.g., source derogation) were reported as least likely. Attitude importance, perceived knowledge, perceived effectiveness of the strategy, and social desirability concerns all significantly predicted the perceived likelihood of using various strategies. A final study examined actual strategy use and found counterarguing, attitude bolstering, source derogation, and negative affect to be prevalent responses. Counterarguing was the most effective strategy for resisting persuasion. Attitude bolstering, although commonly used by respondents, did not predict resistance.