Actual Scale Research Articles

Statistical power calculations1

This article focuses on how to do meaningful power calculations and sample-size determination for common study designs. There are 3 important guiding principles. First, certain types of retrospective power calculations should be avoided, because they add no new information to an analysis. Second, effect size should be specified on the actual scale of measurement, not on a standardized scale. Third, rarely can a definitive study be done without first doing a pilot study. Some simple examples as well as a complex example are given. Power calculations are illustrated using Java applets developed by the author.

Solid state diffusion in Cu–Sn and Ni–Sn diffusion couples with flip-chip scale dimensions

The formation and growth rate of intermetallics of frequently used metallisation systems for flip-chip bumping have been studied and are reported for many years. However, no data are available on diffusion couples with flip-chip processing methods and actual flip-chip scale dimensions. In this paper, the interdiffusion coefficients and activation energies of Cu–Sn and Ni–Sn intermetallic formations are measured on flip-chip bumps with 40 μm bond pad diameter. Also the morphology of the metallurgical reactions is described. Furthermore, the ideal case of a binary diffusion system is seldom present in real-life. In practice, the presence of additional alloying elements has an impact on the intermetallic stoichiometry and even on intermetallic growth and morphology. It is shown that small quantities of Cu in a Ni–Sn system can have a beneficial effect on the Ni consumption but larger quantities result in extreme scalloping of the intermetallic interface.

Improvement of the survival in the seven-band grouper Epinephelus septemfasciatus larvae by optimizing aeration and water inlet in the mass-scale rearing tank

The water flow in larval rearing tanks has been indicated to cause mass mortality of the seven-band grouper Epinephelus septemfasciatus larvae. Therefore, a new aerating method was tested in an actual scale intensive rearing tank (8.0 m in diameter, 1.87 m of water depth, 100 m3 of volume), in which an aerator was positioned at the center of the rearing tank surrounding cylindrical drain (1.2 m in diameter) to generate the flow field, and seven larval rearing trials were performed. The survival rate with the former aeration methods were compared, in which several aerators were located in the rearing tank. The survival rate at 10 days after hatching with the new aeration method (61.5±5.1%, n=7) was approximately three times higher than the former methods (21.2±13.7%, n=6). The flow environment of rearing tanks was also examined by quantifying the flow field, and the relationship between the flow field in the rearing tank, behavior of larvae and survival discussed. It was confirmed that the vertical circulating flow was observed in rearing tanks, and determined effectively the survival and the behavior of grouper larvae in patchiness.

순환식 병류형 곡물건조기 개발 (I) -시작기의 성능시험 -

This study was performed to evaluate the performances for a concurrent flow rice dryer of pilot scale with devices for circulating rice. The pilot scale dryer with the capacity of 700 kg was developed to obtain design informations for the development of actual scale dryer of holding capacity of 10 tons. Three drying tests were conducted at two temperature levels of <TEX>$100^{\circ}C\;and\;120^{\circ}C$</TEX>, and two air flow rates levels of <TEX>$28.5cmm/m^2\;and\;57.1cmm/m^2$</TEX>. Drying conditions for Test-1, Test-2 and Test-3 were <TEX>$100^{\circ}C\;-28.5cmm/m^2,\;120^{\circ}C-28.5cmm/m^2\;and\;120^{\circ}-57.1cmm/m^2}$</TEX> respectively. Drying rates were 0.73%(w.b./h) for Test-1, 0.90%(w.b./h) for Test-2 and 1.46%(w.b./h) for Test-3. The crack ratios of brown rice after drying ranged from 2.4% to 8.4%, and increased with the increase of drying rate and airflow rate. The energy consumptions were from 6,225 kJ/kg to 6,993 kJ/kg which was higher than that of conventional cross-flow rice circulating type dryer used in Korea. This results were due to the lower ambient air temperatures of <TEX>$4.5^{\circ}C\;to\;13.4^{\circ}C$</TEX> during drying tests.

Non-Fourier heat conduction in a single-walled carbon nanotube: Classical molecular dynamics simulations

Nonstationary heat conduction in a single-walled carbon nanotube was investigated by applying a local heat pulse with duration of subpicoseconds. The investigation was based on classical molecular dynamics simulations, where the heat pulse was generated as coherent fluctuations by connecting a thermostat to the local cell for a short duration. The heat conduction through the nanotube was observed in terms of spatiotemporal temperature profiles. Results of the simulations exhibit non-Fourier heat conduction where a distinct amount of heat is transported in a wavelike form. The geometry of carbon nanotubes allows us to observe such a phenomenon in the actual scale of the material. The resulting spatiotemporal profile was compared with the available macroscopic equations, the so-called non-Fourier heat conduction equations, in order to investigate the applicability of the phenomenological models to a quasi-one-dimensional system. The conventional hyperbolic diffusion equation fails to predict the heat conduction due to the lack of local diffusion. It is shown that this can be remedied by adopting a model with dual relaxation time. Further modal analyses using wavelet transformations reveal a significant contribution of the optical phonon modes to the observed wavelike heat conduction. The result suggests that, in carbon nanotubes with finite length where the long-wavelength acoustic phonons behave ballistically, even optical phonons can play a major role in the non-Fourier heat conduction.

露天資源開発の現状と新たな展開を支える技術 露天採掘場の景観評価方法の信頼性の検討

Authors have studied the landscape evaluation of a quarry using videos or still pictures as change stimulus. As a result of these studies, it is found that a video is more suitable than a still picture as change stimulus for the reason why it has reality and liveliness. But more time, labors and costs are required for creations of change stimulus and experiments using a video rather than a still picture.This study aimed at establishment of the reasonable and reliable experimental method for landscape evaluations of quarry. Then, we carried out three investigations as follows;(1) The suitable presentation method of a change stimulus was examined. It became clear that the presentation by a screen projection with near an actual scale was suitable for videos, while the presentation by a personal computer monitor was suitable for still pictures. (2) The applicability of the animation for change stimulus created using the virtual reality system (VRS) was examined. It was judged that its application to the landscape evaluation of quarry is possible for the animation landscape simulation created with VRS.(3) The minimum number of the persons, from which the reliable and stable evaluation results is obtained, was examined. It became clear that the minimum number of the persons is about 30, even when a change stimulus is which of an animation and a still picture.

PARTICLE-SYSTEM MODEL OF CROWD REFUGE FROM INUNDATED UNDERGROUND SPACE

The decision of the refuge plan due to high density of the city and the complication of the city structure in recent years has been getting difficult. Simulation in consideration of the complexity of the phenomenon is indispensable to the decision of the proper refuge plan. An inundation process and the prediction of the human refuge behavior are necessary for the refuge plan. In the present simulation, the simulation of the crowd refuge in the inundation has been performed for the underground shopping center of the actual scale in consideration of the detailed layout by using the human behavior model based on the distinct element method. Furthermore, a refuge process under the condition of some inundation scenarios has been examined. It was shown that learning in advance such as a training for the refuge and an information indication was important for the prompt refuge.

Retailing local food in the Scottish–English borders: A supply chain perspective

Local food is championed as one alternative response to industrial systems of food production and supply. While advocacy for local food is high, there is a lack of empirical evidence about the actual shape and scale of such food supply chains, especially from a retail perspective. Using supply chain diagrams, this paper presents a summary of ‘new’ agro-food geographies for five different retail types—farm shops, butchers, caterers, specialist shops, supermarkets/department stores—that all source local food from suppliers in the Scottish–English borders. Presented as five separate ‘shopping trips’, the paper examines where, how and why retailers source local food. Results reveal the complex nature of local food systems, especially in terms of intra-sector competitive dynamics (with a notable tension between direct forms of retail and established (independent) retailers), links and overlaps with ‘normal’ food retail systems and elastic notions of the ‘local’. The paper also draws a key distinction between locally produced and locally supplied food products.

Effect of gas channel depth on current density distribution of polymer electrolyte fuel cell by numerical analysis including gas flow through gas diffusion layer

In order to apply a numerical analysis to design an actual scale separator in polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC), it is needed to enlarge the calculation size. In this study, mass transfer and flow in gas diffusion layer were calculated, and gas diffusion layer (GDL) mass transfer approximate model based on the theoretical model was developed. Next, with this model, PEFC reaction and thermal flow analysis model, which enabled us to calculate the case of an actual scale cell, was made. Furthermore, the effects of separator channel depth on output performance and current density distribution were examined with this numerical analysis. As a result, in the case of shallow channels, the oxygen transfer rate to electrode increased because of gas flow in GDL. However, current density distribution and pressure drop increased, too. This calculation model can help us to design the optimal separator shape from the comprehensive viewpoint.

Perceptual evaluation of substitution voices: development and evaluation of the (I)INFVo rating scale

Substitution voicing cannot be evaluated accurately by the GRBAS perceptual rating scale, and there is a need for a valuable alternative. Therefore, we developed and tried out a perceptual rating scale, consisting of five new parameters: impression, intelligibility, noise, fluency and voicing, each to be scored between 0 (very bad score) to 10 (very good score for a substitution voice). In analogy to the GRBAS scale, they are then converted to deviance scores ranging from 0 (similar to good substitution voicing) to 3 (very deviant from good substitution voicing). Inter-individual agreement measured in a set of 24 semi-professional jury members seemed to be moderate for all parameters. Mean figures of 0.52, 0.51, 0.46, 0.53 and 0.46 are obtained for the parameters impression, intelligibility, noise, fluency and voicing, respectively. Because a high correlation exists between the first two parameters (0.917) and relying on the correlation figures between the two "I"s and the other parameters (correlation values for "impression" vary from 0.79-0.86; values for "intelligibility" range from 0.74-0.83), we suggest to discard the parameter impression, which turns the actual IINFVo scale into INFVo. The proposed (I)INFVo perceptual rating scale seems promising for the assessment of substitution voicing. Eventual improvements and practical proposals are discussed.

超親水性光触媒を施した外壁表面の水膜形成による冷却効果に関する研究

Integrated panel coated with the super-hydrophilic photocatalyst can spread water film on the surface and evaporate water efficiently. This paper demonstrates the efficiency of the cooling effect obtained by the observations with the actual scale model. The following remarks may be given. (1) The heat balance formula on the outer wall surface to calculate surface temperature and released heat is shown. (2) The predicted value agrees well with the measurement. (3) The parameters in the formula were obtained through the experiments under the various weather conditions.

A Quantitative Approach to Movement Skill Assessment for Children with Mental Retardation

This study examined the psychometric properties of Ulrich’s (1988) Actual Physical Competence Scale for children with mental retardation. A total of 139 children with MR, 7 to 13 years of age participated. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a multidimensional model of skill assessment captures the motor performance of those with MR more accurately than a unidimensional model. Indices of goodness of fit for the multidimensional model were GFI = .91, RMSEA = .09, (χ2/df) = 2.15, and CFI = .93. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency for the total test battery was ICC = .91 and α = .62, respectively. When evaluating movement skills of children with mental retardation, a multidimensional model incorporating both locomotor and object control skills is recommended.

Sedation, sucralfate, and antibiotic use are potential means for protection against early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia.

To examine risk factors for early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia (EOP) in patients requiring mechanical ventilation (MV), we performed a prospective cohort study that included 747 patients. Pneumonia was defined as a positive result for a protected quantitative distal sample. EOP was defined as pneumonia that occurred from day 3 to day 7 of MV. Eighty patients (10.7%) experienced EOP. Independent predictors of EOP were male sex (odds ratio [OR], 2.06; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.18-3.63), actual Glasgow Coma Scale value of 6-13 (OR, 1.95; 95% CI, 1.2-3.18), high Logistic Organ Dysfunction score at day 2 (OR, 1.12 per point; 95% CI, 1.02-1.23), unplanned extubation (OR, 3.19; 95% CI, 1.28-7.92), and sucralfate use (OR, 1.81; 95% CI, 1.01-3.26). Protection occurred with use of aminoglycosides (OR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.17-0.76), beta -lactams and/or beta -lactamase inhibitors (OR, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.28-0.83), or third-generation cephalosporins (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.16-0.74). Sucralfate use and unplanned extubation are independent risk factors for EOP. Use of aminoglycosides, beta-lactams/ beta-lactamase inhibitors, or third-generation cephalosporins protects against EOP.

Development of NOx Recycle Process for Practical Use at Reprocessing Plant

To realize the NOx recycle process using the vacuum pressure swing adsorption method reported previously, development experiments were carried out. Among such experiments were the removal of volatile ruthenium tetroxide from the off-gas, 23-month operation of a bench-scale apparatus and 100-day operation of a pilot plant ⅕ the size of the actual scale. After evaluation of the results for operability and durability of components under acidic conditions, this process was concluded applicable to an actual plant. Compared to the conventional NOx production method using chemical reaction, it has the great advantage of reducing largely low-level radioactive and non-radioactive sodium nitrate waste. With this conclusion, the procedure to install the process at the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant has been commenced.

Anomalous dynamics of forced translocation.

We consider the passage of long polymers of length N through a hole in a membrane. If the process is slow, it is in principle possible to focus on the dynamics of the number of monomers s on one side of the membrane, assuming that the two segments are in equilibrium. The dynamics of s(t) in such a limit would be diffusive, with a mean translocation time scaling as N2 in the absence of a force, and proportional to N when a force is applied. We demonstrate that the assumption of equilibrium must break down for sufficiently long polymers (more easily when forced), and provide lower bounds for the translocation time by comparison to unimpeded motion of the polymer. These lower bounds exceed the time scales calculated on the basis of equilibrium, and point to anomalous (subdiffusive) character of translocation dynamics. This is explicitly verified by numerical simulations of the unforced translocation of a self-avoiding polymer. Forced translocation times are shown to strongly depend on the method by which the force is applied. In particular, pulling the polymer by the end leads to much longer times than when a chemical potential difference is applied across the membrane. The bounds in these cases grow as N2 and N1+nu, respectively, where nu is the exponent that relates the scaling of the radius of gyration to N. Our simulations demonstrate that the actual translocation times scale in the same manner as the bounds, although influenced by strong finite size effects which persist even for the longest polymers that we considered (N=512).

コークス炉の低ＮＯｘ燃焼技術の開発

One of the targets in the SCOPE21 (Super Coke Oven for Productivity and Environmental Enhancement toward the 21st Century) process was to improve the productivity. To achieve high productivity, the process was applied the following items; (1) ultra super dense brick, (2) thin wall (70mm), (3) preheated coal charging, (4) medium temperature carbonization. As heat flux for carbonization was needed about 2 times as much as a conventional coke oven, the combustion technologies to achieve high productivity were investigated by using the actual scale combustion test oven. The combustion conditions to achieve low NOx in the exhaust gas and uniform heating were clarified. The carbonization oven of the pilot plant was designed based on these results. The combustion targets for the low NOx and uniform heating were achieved in the test operation.

Permeate recycle to improve the performance of a spiral-wound RO plant

This paper presents the results obtained from a simulation study on the effect of permeate recycle on the performance of a spiral-wound RO plant. The model used was developed for an actual small scale plant consisting of three stages. The first stage consists of two parallel vessels whereas the second and third stages contain a single vessel each. Each vessel houses three 8-inch spiral-wound brackish water FilmTec membranes. Part of the product water is recycled and mixed with the fresh feed. The model incorporates the solution diffusion mass transport theory, concentration polarization, along with the characteristics of the spacer for the estimation of the mass transfer coefficient and pressure drop. The use of these concepts together with the recycling of a portion of the permeate resulted in a model composed of a highly coupled system of nonlinear equations. The results of the simulation showed that recycling part of the permeate and mixing it with the feed was beneficial in terms of reducing the concentration polarization and improving the quality of the final product. However, as expected, this resulted in reducing the production rate. By using a recycle ratio of 25%, the concentration of the product was reduced by 15% compared to the case of no recycle, at the expense of 22% reduction in the production rate.

A sub‐grid representation of groundwater discharge using a one‐dimensional groundwater model

AbstractSimple models of groundwater flow have limited capability of representing spatial waterlogging/salinization due to the mismatch in scale between model cell size/process conceptualization and actual process scale. This paper presents a method for utilizing increasingly available high‐resolution digital elevation data to develop a sub‐grid parameterization for groundwater discharge and surface waterlogging. This enables simple groundwater models to represent the actual area of waterlogging/salinization better. The approach utilizes a ‘zero‐piezometric surface’ (i.e. a planar surface that passes through the lowest point of each element in a groundwater model). The difference in elevation between the zero‐piezometric surface and a high‐resolution digital elevation model (DEM) provides a distribution of depth to the zero‐piezometric surface (at the DEM scale) for each element in the model. Traditional methods for evaluating surface discharge can then be applied at the DEM cell scale to the distribution of depth to zero‐piezometric surface to derive a relationship between depth to piezometric surface and net recharge/discharge, for each element in the model. A simple one dimensional groundwater flow model, FLOWTUBE, is used to demonstrate the approach. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

MAMMALIAN RESPONSE TO GLOBAL WARMING ON VARIED TEMPORAL SCALES

Paleontological information was used to evaluate and compare how Rocky Mountain mammalian communities changed during past global warming events characterized by different durations (350, ;10,000‐20,000, and 4 million years) and different per‐100-year warming rates (1.08C, 0.18C, 0.06‐0.088C, 0.0002‐0.00038C per 100 years). Our goals were to determine whether biotic changes observed today are characteristic of or accelerated relative to what took place during past global warming events and to clarify the possible trajectory of mammalian faunal change that climate change may initiate. This determination is complicated because actual warming rates scale inversely with the time during which temperature is measured, and species with different life-history strategies respond (or do not) in different ways. Nevertheless, examination of past global warming episodes suggested that approximately concurrent with warming, a predictable sequence of biotic events occurs at the regional scale of the central and northern United States Rocky Mountains. First, phenotypic and density changes in populations are detectable within 100 years. Extinction of some species, noticeable changes in taxonomic composition of communities, and possibly reduction in species richness follow as warming extends to a few thousand years. Faunal turnover nears 100% and species diversity may increase when warm temperatures last hundreds of thousands to millions of years, because speciation takes place and faunal changes initiated by a variety of shorter-term processes accumulate. Climate-induced faunal changes reported for the current global warming episode probably do not yet exceed the normal background rate, but continued warming during the next few decades, especially combined with the many other pressures of humans on natural ecosystems, has a high probability of producing effects that have not been experienced often, if ever, in mammalian history. words: climate change, global warming, Holocene, mammals, Miocene, Pleistocene

Analysis of initial conditions for polymerization reaction using fuzzy neural network and genetic algorithm

In order to determine initial conditions for preparation of polybutadiene with given physicochemical characteristics, a fuzzy neural network (FNN) model was constructed to estimate the physicochemical characteristics of the polymer (the ratio of cis form polymer and the polydispersity index (PDI) and the conversion ratio from the initial conditions in the batch polymerization process. The mean absolute errors of the FNN model for the conversion ratio, the ratio of cis form polymer and PDI as the actual scale were 7.13, 0.23 and 0.17%, respectively. Analyzing for the constructed FNN model, the relationships between the process conditions and physicochemical characteristics were obtained as IF–THEN rules. Using the constructed FNN model and a genetic algorithm (GA) combined with reliability index ( RI), the process conditions with the given physicochemical characteristics and conversion ratio were calculated. The calculated and actual process conditions showed an average relative error of 3.9%.