Actual-ideal Self-discrepancies Research Articles

Gender swapping in massively multiplayer online role-playing games in China: Relationship to gender nonconformity and gender dysphoria

Video games are identified as rich environments for the extension and development of the self. Gender swapping is common in massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). Drawing on self-discrepancy theory, this study aims to examine whether variables reflecting actual-ideal self-discrepancy in gender-atypical behaviors and gender identity contribute to gender swapping. Specifically, we examine associations between childhood gender nonconformity (CGN), adulthood gender nonconformity (AGN), gender dysphoria, and gender-swapping. An online survey was conducted with 586 players of MMORPGs in China. CGN, AGN, and gender dysphoria were positively associated with gender-swapping. Gender dysphoria fully mediated the associations between CGN and gender swapping. The current findings indicate the effects of gender-atypical behaviors and gender identity on gender swapping among Chinese MMORPGs players.

Exploring the roles of human values and self-discrepancies in postnatal depression in first-time mothers.

Postnatal depression is the most prevalent psychopathology experienced within the perinatal period and has been associated with a range of adverse outcomes for both mother and infant. In the present research, we combine two influential theories, Schwartz's theory of human values and Higgins' self-discrepancy theory (SDT), to test new hypotheses about postnatal depression. We recruited 80 first-time mothers who had given birth within the last 6 months and who self-reported experiencing low mood or postnatal depression. Participants anonymously completed measures of postnatal depression, value importance, self-discrepancies, and subjective value fulfillment. Contrary to our hypotheses, actual-ought self-discrepancies, but not actual-ideal self-discrepancies, predicted postnatal depression. Interestingly however, self-discrepancies were negatively correlated with value fulfillment. The findings within this study diverge from the relation predicted within SDT and highlight how motherhood may represent a unique circumstance, in which the "ideal self" has evolved to become a self that one feels morally obligated to embody. Further exploratory analyses revealed that depression was predicted by the difference between value fulfillment and value importance in conservation values, but not by differences between value fulfillment and value importance regarding any of the other value types. We discuss potential impact on discourses around motherhood, alongside clinical implications for practitioners who work with mothers during the perinatal period.

The Moderated Mediating Effect of Self-Compassion and Perceived Social Support on the Relationship between Adolescents’Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancy and Psychological Well-Being

The Moderated Mediating Effect of Self-Compassion and Perceived Social Support on the Relationship between Adolescents’Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancy and Psychological Well-Being

How and when actual‐ideal self‐discrepancy leads to counterfeit luxury purchase intention: A moderated mediation model

AbstractDrawing on the self‐discrepancy and moral decoupling theories, this study investigates how and when actual‐ideal self‐discrepancy (AISD) leads to consumers' purchase intentions toward counterfeit luxury brands. Across a survey study (Study 1: N = 531) and an experimental study (Study 2: N = 543), this research demonstrates that AISD is positively related to consumers' purchase intention toward counterfeit luxury products, and this relationship is mediated by the need for self‐enhancement. Furthermore, moral decoupling moderates this relationship, such that the mediated relationship is stronger when moral decoupling is high rather than low. The findings provide strategic insights for brand managers and policy makers to reduce demands for counterfeit products and tackle the counterfeit industry effectively.

A Comparison of Two Repertory Grid Measures of Personal Construct Conflict

Intrapersonal conflicts have long been recognized as potential contributors to negative psychological and emotional states. Using repertory grids personal construct psychologists have developed methods for identifying implicative dilemmas, a type of conflict that arises from incongruous constructions of a person’s actual and ideal selves. Recent studies have reported greater numbers of implicative dilemmas among clinical samples when compared to controls. Another approach to conceptualizing and measuring intrapsychic conflicts is Chambers’ coordinate grid procedure, a modified repertory grid technique that assesses logical inconsistencies within a person’s construct system. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between implicative dilemmas and logical inconsistencies in a sample of college students. Previous studies have moreover reported positive associations between repertory grid measures of construct system conflict and standardized assessments of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. These associations were also examined in this study. Results revealed no systematic relationship between implicative dilemmas and logical inconsistencies, and neither repertory grid index was associated with scores on the depression, anxiety, and self-esteem questionnaires. Actual-ideal self-discrepancies were found to be associated with self-esteem, however, and examination of two individual grids revealed the clinical utility of the repertory grid procedures.

Predictors of treatment response durability in psychotherapy for binge-eating disorder: Examining the roles of self-discrepancy, self-directed style, and emotion dysregulation.

To examine changes in hypothesized maintenance mechanisms during treatment as predictors of treatment response durability in binge-eating disorder (BED) treatment, using data from a randomized clinical trial comparing the efficacy of Integrative Cognitive-Affective Therapy for BED with cognitive-behavioral therapy delivered using guided self-help. Adults with BED (N = 112) received 17 weeks of treatment. Regression models were conducted to examine the extent to which changes in hypothesized maintenance mechanisms from baseline to end of treatment predicted treatment outcomes at 6-month follow-up, adjusting for demographics, study site, and baseline level of treatment outcome. During-treatment reductions in negative self-directed style and emotion dysregulation predicted reductions in the primary treatment outcome (i.e., binge-eating episode frequency) at follow-up. During-treatment reductions in emotion dysregulation also predicted improvements at follow-up across all three secondary treatment outcomes examined (i.e., global eating disorder [ED] psychopathology, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms), as did during-treatment reductions in actual-ideal self-discrepancy and actual-ought self-discrepancy. Increases in positive self-directed style (e.g., self-affirmation) and reductions in negative self-directed style (e.g., self-blame) during treatment each predicted improvements in anxiety symptoms at follow-up. When predictors were examined simultaneously, the most salient predictors of treatment response durability identified were negative self-directed style for binge-eating episode frequency, actual-ought self-discrepancy and emotion dysregulation for depressive symptoms, and emotion dysregulation for anxiety symptoms. No predictors emerged as most salient for global ED psychopathology. Results indicate that negative self-directed style and emotion dysregulation are particularly important treatment targets in relation to behavioral treatment outcomes in BED.

Predictors and moderators of treatment outcome in a randomized clinical trial for binge-eating disorder.

The current study examined predictors and moderators of two interventions for binge-eating disorder (BED). Participants were 112 adults with BED (Mage = 39.7 ± 13.4 years; MBMI = 35.1 ± 13.4 kg/m²; 82% female; 91% Caucasian) randomly assigned to integrative cognitive-affective therapy for BED (ICAT-BED) or guided self-help cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBTgsh). Generalized linear models examined predictors and moderators of objective binge-eating episode (OBE) frequency and OBE abstinence at end-of-treatment (EOT) and 6-month follow-up (FU). Lower levels of baseline dietary restraint and emotion regulation difficulties predicted greater reductions in OBE frequency at EOT and FU, respectively. At EOT, greater pretreatment self-control predicted greater reductions in OBE frequency in ICAT-BED than CBTgsh (ps < .05). In addition, low shape/weight overvaluation predicted greater reductions in OBE frequency in ICAT-BED than CBTgsh, whereas high shape/weight overvaluation predicted comparable reductions in OBE frequency across treatments at EOT (ps < .02). At EOT and FU, greater baseline actual-ideal self-discrepancy predicted significantly greater reductions in OBE frequency in ICAT-BED, than CBTgsh (ps < .02). No significant predictor or moderator effects were observed for models examining OBE abstinence. This study identified two general predictors and four moderators of BED treatment response. However, only one predictor (actual-ideal self-discrepancy) interacted with treatment type to differentially predict OBE frequencies at both EOT and FU. Altogether, findings suggest that ICAT-BED may confer specific and durable improvements in OBE frequencies among individuals with high actual-ideal self-discrepancy. Therefore, patients demonstrating these characteristics may be more likely to benefit from ICAT-BED. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The Mechanism Underlying the Effect of Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancy on Internet Gaming Addiction: a Moderated Mediation Model

With Internet games increasingly prevailing among adolescents over the last decade, Internet gaming addiction (IGA) draws more and more attention from scholars and practitioners, and a consolidating line of research has linked some psychological factors to IGA. To contribute to the understanding of the mechanism underlying the effect of self-discrepancy on IGA, this study adopted a cross-sectional design to examine the effects of actual-ideal self-discrepancy, avatar identification, and locus of control on gamers’ IGA risk. Data were collected over a 1-month period using a convenience sample of 508 university student gamers from three universities in Henan Province of China. The results of structural equation modeling analyses showed that avatar identification partially mediated the relationship between actual-ideal self-discrepancy and IGA among gamers; meanwhile, locus of control moderated the effects of actual-ideal self-discrepancy and avatar identification on IGA among gamers.

Coping as a moderator of self-discrepancies and psychological distress

ABSTRACTThe current study examined the moderating effects of different types of coping styles between self-discrepancy and psychological distress (i.e., anxiety and depressive symptoms). Participants consisted of 143 university students who completed measures of self-discrepancy, coping styles, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. The present research partially replicated previous findings of the unique relations between different types of self-discrepancies and specific psychological distress. Actual-ideal discrepancy uniquely and positively related to depressive symptoms, and actual-ought discrepancy positively related to both anxiety and depressive symptoms. Regarding the moderating role of coping, task-oriented coping buffered the relation between actual-ideal self-discrepancy and depressive symptoms. Avoidance-oriented coping buffered the relation between actual-ideal self-discrepancy and depressive symptoms, while it amplified the relation between actual-ought self-discrepancy and anxiety. The findings extend the literature on self-discrepancy theory by informing how coping styles play a role in the relation between self-discrepancy and psychological distress. Clinicians can use the findings by targeting coping styles for clients who suffer from anxiety or depressive symptoms caused by self-discrepancy.

실제-이상 자기불일치와 수치심의 관계에서 정서인식 명확성의 조절효과

실제-이상 자기불일치와 수치심의 관계에서 정서인식 명확성의 조절효과

Rumination selectively mediates the association between actual-ideal (but not actual-ought) self-discrepancy and anxious and depressive symptoms

Actual-ideal and actual-ought self-discrepancies have been theorised to be independently associated with depressive and anxious symptoms respectively. This study tested this prediction and extended it to consider whether rumination mediates these relationships. One hundred and thirty-eight students (48 males, 90 females) listed four adjectives describing how they would ideally hope to be and four adjectives describing how they ought to be. Participants then rated how distant they perceived themselves to be from each of their ideal and ought selves, as well as the importance of each ideal and ought self. Finally, participants self-reported levels of negative rumination, anxious and depressive symptoms. Actual-ideal self-discrepancy was independently associated with both anxious and depressive symptoms, whereas actual-ought self-discrepancy was independently associated with anxious symptoms only. Rumination mediated the independent relationships between actual-ideal self-discrepancy and anxious and depressive symptoms. Actual-ought self-discrepancy retained an independent association with anxious symptoms that was not mediated through rumination. Anxious and depressive symptoms both have independent associations with actual-ideal self-discrepancies, whereas anxious symptoms are uniquely associated with actual-ought self-discrepancies. We reveal further evidence for rumination as a cognitive-motivational transdiagnostic process linking self-regulatory difficulties with anxious and depressive symptoms.

Cross-cultural effects of self-discrepancy on the consumption of counterfeit branded luxuries

PurposeConsumers’ motivations for purchasing counterfeit branded luxuries are a topic of heated discussion amongst academics and practitioners. Drawing on self-discrepancy theory, the purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of actual-ideal self-discrepancy on consumers’ attitudes towards counterfeit branded luxuries. It investigates how self-monitoring and perceived social risk moderate this effect. Furthermore, it explores cross-cultural differences in the impact of actual-ideal self-discrepancy.Design/methodology/approachA pilot study provides preliminary evidence that highlights the importance of actual-ideal self-discrepancy in counterfeit consumption. Based upon a large-scale survey across Hong Kong, the USA and Australia, the principal study explores the moderating effect of self-monitoring and perceived social risk as well as cross-cultural differences.FindingsThe results indicate that self-discrepancy increases consumers’ tendency to engage in symbolic consumption, and that consumption of counterfeit branded luxuries can serve the social function of self-expression to reduce the discomfort induced by self-discrepancy. Self-monitoring and perceived social risk have significant moderating effects, with the former strengthening and the latter attenuating this effect. Moreover, the effect of self-discrepancy is more pronounced amongst individualistic consumers than collectivistic consumers.Originality/valueThis is the first study to highlight the significance of self-discrepancy in the consumption of counterfeit branded luxuries. It examines the important moderating effects of self-monitoring and perceived social risk. Consumers from collectivistic and individualistic cultures define their self-concept differently, thus the findings provide meaningful cross-cultural information on the impact of self-discrepancy in counterfeit consumption.

The impact of self-imagery on aspects of the self-concept in individuals with high levels of eating disorder cognitions

Background and objectives: Low self-esteem has been identified as a maintaining factor in Cognitive Behavioural models of eating disorders and links have been identified between early memories, negative core beliefs and mental imagery. This study explored the impact of positive and negative self-imagery on aspects of the working self (implicit and explicit self-esteem, self-concept clarity and self-discrepancy) and affect. Methods: Participants with high levels of eating disorder cognitions completed measures of explicit self-esteem, self-concept clarity, self-discrepancy and affect prior to completing a positive or negative self-imagery retrieval task. Baseline measures were then repeated and a measure of implicit self-esteem completed. Results: Positive self-imagery retrieval led to a significant increase in positive explicit self-esteem and a significant reduction in negative explicit self-esteem and actual-ideal self-discrepancies. Negative self-imagery retrieval led to a significant increase in negative explicit self-esteem and actual-ideal self-discrepancies and a significant reduction in positive explicit self-esteem. Levels of implicit self-esteem did not differ between the two groups post imagery manipulation. Retrieving a positive self-image also led to an improvement in state self-concept clarity; however, no effect was found for the negative self-imagery intervention. Holding a positive self-image in mind led to an increase in state positive affect and a reduction in state negative affect. The opposite was found for negative self-image retrieval. Limitations: The study did not measure implicit self-esteem at baseline. Conclusions: Imagery techniques that involve the retrieval of a positive self-image may help to improve aspects of the working-self and affect in those with eating difficulties.

Is plus size equal? The positive impact of average and plus-sized media fashion models on women’s cognitive resource allocation, social comparisons, and body satisfaction

ABSTRACTDuring individual laboratory sessions, 49 women with an actual-ideal self-discrepancy randomly viewed 12 images of media fashion models varying in body types. Heart rate was recorded during image exposure. Self-report social comparisons and body satisfaction were measured following exposure to each image. A visual recognition test was administered following the last image. The results indicated that women reported the greatest body satisfaction and the least amount of social comparisons when viewing plus size models, but body satisfaction decreased and social comparisons increased when viewing average sized followed by thin size models. Further, as social comparisons increased (e.g., internal processing), external resource allocation and encoding decreased. The theoretical and applied implications from these findings are discussed.

Relationship between lifestyle actual-ideal self-discrepancy and self-regulatory fatigue in undergraduate students

Objective To investigate the relationship between the lifestyle actual-ideal self-discrepancy and the self-regulatory fatigue. Methods A sample of 434 healthy undergraduate students were recruited from September to October 2015. They were inquired the demographic information questionnaire, the lifestyle actual-ideal self-discrepancy of Chinese Adolescent Lifestyles Scale(CALS) and the Self-Regulatory Fatigue Scale (SRF-S). Results The scores of lifestyle actual-ideal self-discrepancy in study habits ranked the highest(1.00(0.60, 1.40)), followed by physical exercise(0.86(0.43, 1.29)), sleep status(0.80(0.40, 1.00)), diet( 0.75(0.50, 1.25)), recreational activities(0.63(0.00, 1.00)), coping style(0.50(0.25, 0.75)), interpersonal relationship (0.46(0.17, 0.67)) and health habits(0.25(0.00, 0.50)). Furthermore, the scores of actual-ideal self-discrepancy in interpersonal relationship, study habits, sleep, physical exercise, coping style and diet were positively correlated with the scores of self-regulatory fatigue(r=0.22, 0.19, 0.19, 0.16, 0.13, 0.12, P<0.05). There was no relationship between the scores of actual-ideal self-discrepancy and the scores of self-regulatory fatigue in health habits and recreational activities(r=0.31, 0.04). Conclusion The actual-ideal self-discrepancy in interpersonal relationship, study habits, physical exercise, coping style, sleep and diet were positively correlated with the self-regulatory fatigue. The reduction in these lifestyle actual-ideal self-discrepancy may help college students ease their self-adjustment fatigue. Key words: Lifestyle; Actual-ideal self-discrepancy; Self-regulatory fatigue

The Influence of Adolescents’ Self-Efficacy on the Relationship between Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancy and Depression

The Influence of Adolescents’ Self-Efficacy on the Relationship between Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancy and Depression

Defensive self-esteem impacts attention, attitude strength, and self-affirmation processes

Individuals with defensive self-esteem score low on implicit measures of self-esteem (ISE) and high on explicit measures of self-esteem (ESE). Although there is some evidence about the consequences of defensive self-esteem, much of it is indirect and open to alternative explanations. Here, we offer direct and novel evidence regarding the implications of defensive self-esteem. Using a standard visual attention paradigm, Study 1 revealed that defensive self-esteem is associated with enhanced attention to defensiveness-related words. Building upon these results, Study 2 found that defensive self-esteem individuals reported particularly strong attitudes, across different operationalizations of attitude strength as well as different attitude objects. Study 3 examined the sensitivity of defensive self-esteem individuals to self-affirmation effects. The results revealed that self-affirmation was particularly effective for defensive self-esteem individuals in reducing actual-ideal self-discrepancies. Overall, the results provide novel and firm evidence that the combination of simultaneously low ISE and high ESE elicits defensiveness.

Examining the Influence of Actual-Ideal Self-Discrepancies, Depression, and Escapism, on Pathological Gaming Among Massively Multiplayer Online Adolescent Gamers

This study examined whether actual-ideal self-discrepancy (AISD) is related to pathological gaming through escapism as a means of reducing depression for adolescent massively multiplayer online gamers. A Discrepancy-reduction Motivation model of pathological video gaming was tested. A survey was conducted on 161 adolescent gamers from secondary schools. Two mediation effects were tested using path analysis: (a) depression would mediate the relationship between AISDs and escapism, and (b) escapism would mediate the relationship between depression and pathological gaming. Results support the hypotheses stated above. The indirect effects of both AISD and depression were significant on pathological gaming. AISD and escapism also had direct effects on pathological gaming. The present study suggests that pathological behaviors may be over-regulated coping strategies of approaching the ideal self and avoiding the actual self.

Bulimic and Depressive Symptoms: Self-Discrepancies and Acceptance

We tested 342 female undergraduate students to test predictions derived from self-discrepancy theory with the goal of distinguishing self-perceptions associated with commonly comorbid bulimic and depressive symptoms. Consistent with our predictions and previous research, symptoms of eating pathology no longer remained correlated significantly when we statistically controlled for generic actual-ideal self-discrepancy scores associated with depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the correlation between bulimic symptoms and specific self-discrepancies (i.e., physical attractiveness, perfectionism, self-control, acceptance by others, self-acceptance, and social competence) was larger than correlations related to generic self-discrepancies. Two self-discrepancies—self-control and physical attractiveness — accounted for the most variance in bulimic symptoms above and beyond depression. Scores on an acceptance scale were negatively correlated with scores on measures of bulimic symptoms, depression, anxiety, and social desirability, as well as with self-discrepancies related to openness to new experiences, acceptance by self, and acceptance by others ( p &lt; .01). Our results highlight the value of self-discrepancy theory in distinguishing individuals with depressive and eating disordered symptoms. Treatment and theoretical implications are discussed.

Who Feels Discrepant and How Does Feeling Discrepant Matter? Examining the Presence and Consequences of Feeling Discrepant from Personal and Social Norms Related to Thinness in American and British High School Girls

This research examines whether both American and British girls feel discrepant from social and personal norms related to thinness and the consequences of such discrepancy on rates of disordered eating. High school girls in the United States (N = 198) and Great Britain (N = 74) completed measures of their own eating and body-related attitudes and behaviors as well as their perceptions of other girls' attitudes and behaviors. As predicted, participants in both countries believed that, compared to themselves, other girls are thinner, have thinner ideal bodies, and exercise more for aesthetic reasons (e.g., weight loss, attractiveness, toning). Girls in both countries believed that their ideal body shapes are smaller than their current body shapes. In addition, both British and American girls who believed their current figure was smaller than that of other girls, and those who believed their ideal figure was smaller than their current figure, showed greater drive for thinness. Finally, actual-ideal self-discrepancy was associated with more symptoms of bulimia in British girls, but not in American girls. Discussion focuses on the theoretical and applied implications of these findings.