Termite Activity Research Articles

Ecology: Termite Patterning at Multiple Scales

A vast and ancient array of regularly spaced dirt mounds - the result of termite activities- has been discovered in Brazil. Might this inform our understanding of general mechanisms of spatial patterning at different scales?

Effect of Polyacrylamide/Attapulgite Composite on Foraging Behaviors of Formosan Subterranean Termites (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae).

Moisture conditions of food and soil are essential for the survival and foraging activities of subterranean termites. Polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite is a water-retaining agent that has been applied to increase moisture of agricultural soils. We hypothesize that polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite may increase the moisture of bait matrixes and soil surrounding baiting containers and therefore attract termites and increase their foraging activities. In the present study, aggregation and feeding preferences, survivorship, body water percentage, and wood consumption of Formosan subterranean termites, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae), were investigated when responding to polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite that was buried within soil (substrate) or filled in the void volume of baiting containers. Two-choice tests showed that termites consumed significantly more wood when polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite was buried within dry soil (27%-moisture) than the controls (no polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite was provided). However, polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite buried within wet soil (54%-moisture) did not significantly affect foraging behaviors of termites. Multiple-choice tests showed no aggregation or feeding preference of termites in the baiting containers filled with polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite compared with the soil-filled or unfilled ones, whenever the substrate was dry or wet. No-choice tests showed that the presence of polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite (buried within soil or filled in baiting containers) significantly increased wood consumption and body water percentage of termites as well as wood moisture under dry-substrate conditions. Our studies suggest that burying polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite within dry soil may enhance foraging activities of termites, but filling the bait stations with polyacrylamide/attapulgite composite may not effectively attract termites.

Effects of termite foraging activity on topsoil physical properties and water infiltration in Vertisol

In the tropics, termites are key litter decomposers and soil bioturbators. Termite foraging activity involves the production of sheetings and galleries that influence the physical, chemical and hydraulic properties of soils. The functional impacts of these biogenic structures and biopores have been acknowledged for a long time in soils dominated by 1:1 minerals. Less is known, however, on their functional impacts in soils dominated by 2:1 minerals, such as vertisol which represent 22% of the land surface in India. Therefore, an experiment was carried out in a vertisol in southern India where elephant (Elephas maximus) dung pats (ED) and Lantana camara twigs (LT) were applied on the ground and protected (+) or not (−) from termite activity. Termite activity was only measured below ED−, showing a clear preference for organic matter derived from elephant dung. Soil sheetings had similar properties to the surrounding topsoil, with the exception of their C content that was reduced. This result raised the question of the origin of the soil used by termites for covering ED. ED− was also associated with the presence of effective macropores up to 5 cm depth and a significant increase in water hydraulic conductivity (12-fold). However, the utilization of the coefficient of linear extensibility showed that these galleries were unstable and most likely short-lived. In conclusion, this study confirmed that the structure of soils dominated by 2:1 minerals is mainly controlled by physical processes (i.e., the shrinking and swelling of soils). This study also stresses the need to better understand the dynamic of termite galleries in soil and to quantify the origin and fate of organic matter in soil sheetings.

Economic and ecological importance of termites: A global review

AbstractIn this review article, the positive and negative impacts of termites on ecosystems and human activities are examined. Various ecosystem services provided by termites – their importance as a food resource for humans, wildlife and domestic animals – are discussed, along with the use of these insects in scientific research and in folk and traditional medicine. Some insufficiently studied properties of termites (their ability to perceive the radiation of radioactive substances, electric fields and magnetic fields), as well as the use of termites in bionics, are described. Special attention is paid to the use of termite mounds for different purposes (e.g. in mineral deposit searches, in medical applications, as furnaces for copper smelting, for storage of some nuts, as burial sites, for gathering of edible mushrooms of the genus Termitomyces and as fertilizer). Examples of such use in different countries are given. This article reviews the activities of termites as pests of agriculture and forestry, including crops that are most affected, and termites as structural pests (e.g. wooden structures, household furniture, books and museum collections). Examples of termites’ malicious activities in different parts of the world are provided. Information on the invasions of termites is given, and the main areas of expansion of their habitat are described. The economic loss caused by termites in some countries and the world as a whole are presented. The article also lists the most economically important termite species in the world.

Effects of Termite Activities on Permeability Characteristics of Lateritic Soils in Ado-Ekiti, South Western, Nigeria

Effects of Termite Activities on Permeability Characteristics of Lateritic Soils in Ado-Ekiti, South Western, Nigeria

Ramial wood amendments (Piliostigma reticulatum) mitigate degradation of tropical soils but do not replenish nutrient exports

AbstractRestoring degraded soils to support food production is a major challenge for West African smallholders who have developed local innovations to counter further degradation. The objective of this study was to evaluate a local farmer's technique that uses ramial wood (RW) as soil amendment (Piliostigma reticulatum shrub). Three treatments were applied in an experimental plot in Burkina Faso: control (no amendment), low RW (3 Mg fresh mass·ha−1·yr−1), and high RW (12 Mg fresh mass·ha−1·yr−1). RW was chipped to <5‐cm pieces and either buried or mulched. Topsoil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in control and low‐RW treatments declined after 7 years of continuous sorghum cultivation. Use of high‐RW amendment stabilized soil C content while N and P declined, thus not replenishing nutrient exports. Net contribution to soil C in the layer measuring 0–15 cm was 15% of the applied C in the high‐RW amendments. Although biomass and grain yields were higher in high‐RW treatments, crop productivity declined throughout the experiment for all treatments. Termite casts on RW treatments evidenced the potential role of wood‐foraging termites in diluting the impact of RW on soil fertility build‐up and soil water content. We conclude that mitigating soil degradation under semiarid conditions in Burkina Faso would require large amounts of woody amendments, particularly if the level of termite activity is high. Additional nutrient sources would be needed to compensate for removal in exported products so that biomass and grain production can be stabilized or increased.

Utilization of Bark Condensed Tannin as Natural Preservatives Against Subterranean Termite

Extractive-based preservative has been isolated from many parts of plant to protect wood from fungi or pest. This is due to the presence of bioactive chemical as a natural preservative. Present study, the condensed tannin was isolated from bark-waste of Acacia crassicarpa and Acacia mearnsii. The yield of the extracts obtained from A. crassicarpa using a 70% acetone aqueous solution (7% based on bark weight) is less than that obtained from A. mearnsii (34%). To evaluate the termiticidal activity of condensed tannin from both extracts, no-choice tests were conducted using Reticulitermes speratus. After 14 days, mass loss of the dimmer condensed tannin treated was less than 50%, significantly different with control. In addition, a monomer condensed tannin, catechin was presented the similar result. Meanwhile, the termite mortality of catechin is slightly higher than the dimmer. According to both parameter, the medium level of mass loss and termite mortality, the dimmer suggested as antifeedant in mechanism of termiticidal. The feeding activity is decreased after contact with the treated paper disc. In polymer condensed tannin, the result seems similar to dimmer condensed tannin. Condensed tannin and hydrolyzable tannin which were contained in the bark effected termite consumption because it caused inactivation of enzyme in termite digestion system. In fact, many factors effect termite activity from natural extractives such as compound type, quantity and also extract retention activity. The finding of this study should contribute to the developing of natural wood preservative from extractive-based. Especially, the study of structure-active relationship (SAR) of condensed tannin from A. crassicarpa, which can improve the utilization of bark-waste from pulp industry.

Woody encroachment slows decomposition and termite activity in an African savanna.

Woody encroachment can lead to a complete switch from open habitats to dense thickets, and has the potential to greatly alter the biodiversity and ecological functioning of grassy ecosystems across the globe. Plant litter decomposition is a critical ecosystem process fundamental to nutrient cycling and global carbon dynamics, yet little is known about how woody encroachment might alter this process. We compared grass decay rates of heavily encroached areas with adjacent nonencroached open areas in a semi-arid South African savanna using litterbags that allowed or excluded invertebrates. We also assessed the effect of woody encroachment on the activity of termites- dominant decomposer organisms in savanna systems. We found a significant reduction in decomposition rates within encroached areas, with litter taking twice as long to decay compared with open savanna areas. Moreover, invertebrates were more influential on grass decomposition in open areas and termite activity was substantially lower in encroached areas, particularly during the dry season when activity levels were reduced to almost zero. Our results suggest that woody encroachment created an unfavourable environment for invertebrates, and termites in particular, leading to decreased decomposition rates in these areas. We provide the first quantification of woody encroachment altering the functioning of African savanna ecosystems through the slowing of aboveground plant decomposition. Woody encroachment is intensifying across the globe, and our results suggest that substantial changes to the carbon balance and biodiversity of grassy biomes could occur.

Termite Foraging on Plants of a Brazilian Savanna: the Effects of Tree Height

Termites play an important role as ecosystem engineers in many tropical environments, acting as herbivore-detritivore organisms and strongly influencing vegetation structure and composition by modifying soil properties, providing nutrients by recycling the organic matter, and direct feeding on plants, notably in the Cerrado (Savanna) of Brazil. To evaluate the intensity of termite foraging on Cerrado plants, we recorded plants higher than 25 cm, which exhibited termite activity along nine transects (2 x 50m), at the Estação Ecológica de Pirapitinga (EEP), in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. We recorded the height, basal area, and identified the species of each plant. Simultaneously, we used cellulose baits disposed at each 10 m along six transects of 100 m to sample termites in this area, which was protected from fire for at least 40 years. Twelve species of termites were recorded. Termite foraging on Cerrado plant species varied considerably and it was influenced by several factors including plant height and host species. Taller plants presented more termites than smaller plants, probably due to the amount of available resources (for nesting and feeding) for the termites.

Termite Mounds Effects on Soil Properties in the Atlantic Forest Biome

ABSTRACT Termites have peculiar activities in the soil, inducing significant changes in the soil properties. The objective of this study was to assess physical and chemical properties and soil organic matter to evaluate the effect of termite activity and termite mounds on the soil. Two toposequences were selected and divided in slope thirds (shoulder, backslope, and footslope). In each of these, four termite mounds were selected. Samples were taken from the soils and termite mounds (top, center, and base) along [...]

Sustainable use of termite activity in agro-ecosystems with reference to earthworms. A review

Sustainable agriculture and agro-ecology justify the need to study and understand the role played by ecological processes, and soil biodiversity in particular, in agro-ecosystem functioning. A large number of studies have focused on earthworms in temperate and humid tropical ecosystems and have demonstrated their importance for improving soil biological, physical, and chemical properties in agro-ecosystems. Their “success” is so essential that earthworms are widely considered key species and relevant indicators of soil health in temperate ecosystems. In arid and sub-arid ecosystems, the role of “soil engineer” is usually attributed to termites, and especially fungus-growing termites in Africa and Asia. However, despite this recognition, significant effort is spent eradicating them in plantations because of their pest status. In this review, we discuss the status of termites (“pests” vs. “soil engineers”) and question whether termites play similar roles to earthworms in arid- and sub-arid agroecosystems, with a focus on their influence on nutrient cycling and water dynamics. We argue that the dream of controlling natural interactions and ridding plantations of termites remains a costly legacy of the green revolution. We review the agricultural practices that have been used to reduce termite damage in plantations by restoring refuges to predators or by reorienting termite foraging activity towards organic amendments. Then, we show that the stimulation of termite activity can be used to improve key ecological functions in agro-ecosystems, such as increasing water availability to plants or producing fertility hot-spots. Finally, we suggest that more research on how termites can be used for improving ecosystem services, as is actually done with earthworms in temperate and humid tropical countries, could lead to a paradigm shift in our understanding of the impact of termites in tropical agro-ecosytems.

Holocene large mammal mass death assemblage from South Africa

A fossilised large mammal bonebed was discovered eroding out of a gully in the Free State of South Africa. The bonebed is ∼1.5 m below the modern land surface, and extends over an area 35 × 13 m. Surface scatters of stone tools occur in a 1 km radius of the site, and a large fire place associated with spirally fractured burnt bone is preserved to one side. The purpose of this research was to excavate and taphonomically analyse the faunal sample to elicit the cause of death, and radiocarbon date it to establish when it happened. The bonebed is represented by black wildebeest, including juvenile and adult individuals. Faunal remains are randomly oriented and many are complete. Weathering stage 1 on most of the bones together with the articulation pattern suggest that the carcasses were exposed for more than a year and less than three before being buried by hillslope sediment. Two-thirds of those fractured record a spiral breakage pattern. There are a few trample marks on bones and evidence of some termite activity. No stone tools were found in the section of bonebed we excavated, and there is no evidence of manmade or carnivore damage on the fauna. Calcrete nodules in the underlying deposits and phytoliths representative of desertification throughout the sedimentary sequence suggest that the animals died under drought conditions between 3840 ± 40 and 3500 ± 40 cal BP, and that human activity at the site was marginal.

‘Hydraulic Trench’ Termiticide Injections Eliminate Termites from Buildings

Termidor®H•P ‘High Precision Injection System’ technology was used to create termiticide-treated ‘Hydraulic Trenches’ in soil around perimeters of six termite-infested buildings. Termidor®H•P II High Precision Termiticide was applied at locations around the buildings where using the Hydraulic Trench mode was not practical. The H•P System ‘Standard Application’ mode was used to apply termiticide using drilling and rodding methods, thereby ensuring complete continuous termiticide treatment to soil around building perimeters. Treated soil around one of the buildings was sampled for fipronil residue. Soil classifications were pH-neutral sandy-loam topsoil underlain with a sandy-clay-loam base. Residue analyses within the 30.5-cm-deep soil profile found fipronil concentrations lethal to termites in both soil types. No termite activity was detected within the six buildings at 3-, 6-, 12-, or 24-months after treatments.

Effects of Termites on Soil pH and Its Application for Termite Control in Zhejiang Province, China

Soil dwelling termites dig nests in the ground that have a significant impact on the soil environment. Activities of termites can result in accumulation of organic matter and enrichment of nutrients and minerals in the soil. Samples from the nest/surrounding soils of two termite species (Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) and Reticulitermes flaviceps (Oshima)) and termite non-invaded soils in the seawall of the Qiantang River, Zhejiang Province, China were collected and analysed for soil pH. The results show that the observed termites prefer an acidic environment and that their activities elevate the pH of termite mound soil compared with surrounding soil. Considering the differences in the distribution areas, termite species, and properties of termite mounds and surrounding soils, this paper also examines the literature concerning the effects of termites on soil pH. After summarizing the pH of the termite survival soil environment, the feasibility of termite control by modifying the soil pH is addressed. Finally, some topics for future research are discussed.

Integrated soil fertility management reduces termite damage to crops on degraded soils in western Ethiopia

Crop damage by termite is known to be severe in degraded soils. However, the role of organic inputs in reducing crop damage by termite has not been systematically studied in Ethiopia. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to quantify (i) the influence of integrated use of manure and NP fertilizer on termite damage and pod yields of hot pepper (Capsicum frutescence L.), (ii) the optimum rate of manure and NP fertilizer for hot pepper production for the study area, and (iii) the association between different rates of nitrogen (N) fertilizer and plant damage by termite. Two separate experiments were conducted for three consecutive seasons on degraded soils that were hotspots of termite activity. The treatments in experiment 1 consisted of different rates of well-composted manure applied in combination with NP fertilizer, whereas experiment 2 consisted of different rates of N fertilizer with basal application of 44kg Pha−1. In experiment 1, the combined application of manure and NP fertilizer significantly (P<0.05) reduced plant damage but increased pod yields compared with the control treatment and the recommended NP fertilizer. Plant damage by termites decreased from 29% in the first season to 11% in the third season, while pod yield increased from 378kgha−1 in the first season to 2339kgha−1 in the third season. The results of the repeated measures data analysis also indicated significant (P<0.0001) differences among the seasons in plant damage by termite and pod yield. In experiment 2, continuous application of the different rates of N fertilizer did not significantly reduced plant damage by termite while the N effect lacked consistency on pod yield. However, the application of N at rates ≥75 and >100kgha−1 increased termite damages to hot pepper in the first and second seasons, respectively. Overall, the application of one-fourth of the recommended NP fertilizer (25/11kgN/Pha−1) along with 10t manure ha−1 was found to be optimum for hot pepper production for the study area and similar agroecosystem. Therefore, we recommend adoption of the integrated use of manure and NP fertilizer to prevent soil degradation and reduce termite damage in western Ethiopia.

Efficacy of Chlorantraniliprole in Controlling Structural Infestations of the Eastern Subterranean Termite in the USA.

Subterranean termites are the most economically important structural pests in the USA, and the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Dictyoptera: Rhinotermitidae) is the most widely distributed species. Soil treatment with a liquid termiticide is a widely used method for controlling subterranean termites in structures. We assessed the efficacy of a nonrepellent termiticide, Altriset® (active ingredient: chlorantraniliprole), in controlling structural infestations of R. flavipes in Texas, North Carolina, and Ohio and determined the post-treatment fate of termite colonies in and around the structures. In all three states, microsatellite markers indicated that only one R. flavipes colony was infesting each structure. A single chlorantraniliprole treatment provided effective structural protection as there was no further evidence of termite activity in and on the majority of structures from approximately 1 month to 2 years post-treatment when the study concluded. Additionally, the treatment appeared to either severely reduce the infesting colony’s footprint at monitors in the landscape or eliminate colony members from these monitors. A supplemental spot-treatment was conducted at one house each in Texas and North Carolina at 5 and 6 months post-treatment, respectively; no termites were observed thereafter in these structures and associated landscaping. The number of colonies found exclusively in the landscape (not attacking the structure) varied among the states, with the largest number of colonies in Texas (0–4) and North Carolina (0–5) as compared to 0–1 in Ohio, the most northern state.

Potential utilization of sodium fluoride (NaF) as a biocide in particleboard production

The feasibility of sodium fluoride (NaF) incorporation as a biocide in the manufacture of particleboard was examined. Laboratory-scale particleboards prepared from untreated wood particles were incorporated with NaF powder at target retentions of 1, 1.5 and 3% of the total particle weight. An in-line treatment method was used to introduce the biocide during the blending stage just before adhesive application. Standard static bending and water resistance (water absorption and thickness swelling) tests indicated that embedding of the powder biocide up to the 3% level did not cause any detrimental effects on mechanical and physical properties. The laboratory decay and termite resistance tests showed that even the lower retention levels of 1 and 1.5% NaF were enough to suppress fungal and termite activity and significantly reduce the mass loss and consumption rate values of the specimens when compared to the untreated controls. Spectrophotometric analysis of leachate waters and the mass losses of the leached specimens revealed the tendency of the NaF to be depleted from the composite specimens. Therefore, the tested biocide was found to be appropriate for interior or protected above-ground outdoor exposure conditions.

Origin of mounds in the Pantanal wetlands: An integrated approach between geomorphology, pedogenesis, ecology and soil micromorphology

Vegetated mounds are an important geomorphological feature of the Pantanal, where the influence of floods dictates not only hydropedological processes, but also the distribution and ecology of the flora and fauna. This work aimed to identify factors and processes that influence the formation and spatial distribution of the mounds, which are commonly associated with termite activity. In order to characterize pedological processes, macro and micro morphological descriptions, satellite image interpretation, dating of the sandy sedimentary material using OSL and carbon dating using 14C AMS were carried out. This dating of the materials indicates that the sediments in which the soils were formed were deposited during the Pleistocene, while the carbonates are from the Holocene. The basin-like format of the laminar structures suggests that part of the more clayey material was deposited in lacustrine environments. The more humid climate in the Holocene intensified argilluviation, which at an advanced stage, led to a more pronounced textural gradient, reducing drainage and leading to ferrolysis and thickening of the E horizon. Besides pedogenic processes, more erosive flooding during the Holocene began reducing and rounding the landscape’s more elevated structures (paleolevees). In the final stage, these structures were occupied by termites to shelter from flooding. Thereafter, the bio-cementation action of the termite nests has increased the resistance of the vegetated mounds to processes of erosion.

Termite (Isoptera) Diversity in a Gallery Forests Relict in the Colombian Eastern Plains

Termites are a key group for the dynamics of gallery forests in the Colombian Orinoco region, but have been little studied. Richness and relative abundance of termites found in protected gallery forest fragments within commercial forest plantations were quantified. Sampling was conducted at three sites surrounding the creeks “Huerta La Grande”, “Caño Claro” and “Caño Los Micos”, along linear transects 50 m long and divided into five 5 × 2 m plots; there were nine transects and 45 plots. Termite sampling involved the examination of fallen branches, pieces of wood in contact with the soil, arboreal termitaria, epigeal nests and soil samples 20 cm deep (four per plot). Thirty morphospecies, mostly xylophages from the families Termitidae (Apicotermitinae, Termitinae, Nasutitermitinae, Syntermitinae) and Rhinotermitidae (Heterotermitinae), were found. No association was found between richness or termite abundance and tree size, soil pH, soil organic carbon content or accumulation depth of leaf litter on the soil. The termite diversity and abundance found in fragments of gallery forest highlights the importance of maintaining this type of vegetation to preserve the ecosystem services derived from the biological activity of termites. Keywords: Heterotermes convexinotatus, Microcerotermes, Conservation, Orinoquia, Species richness

Impacts of termites on selected soil physicochemical characteristics in the highlands of Southwest Ethiopia

ABSTRACTTermites are reported to improve soil physicochemical properties thereby enhance soil fertility of their mound and foraging areas. Empirical study pertaining to these effects is missing in Southwest Ethiopia. For this study, soil samples affected by termite activities were collected at 1 m interval within 0–3 m distance from the base of six termite mounds on gently sloping and sloping land and analyzed for physicochemical parameters. The result of the analysis depicted that soil bulk density (1.38–1.15 g cm−3) and moisture content (21.1–9.9%) decreased with increased distance from the mound base. While clay content decreased with increased distance from the mound base from72.0% to 45.5%, sand and silt contents increased from 8.0% to 21.3% and 19.3% to 28.5%, respectively. PH (6.23), organic carbon (3.85%), total nitrogen (0.4%), cation exchange capacity CEC (30.43 cmol kg−1), exchangeable Ca (13.73 cmol kg−1), Mg (3.15 cmol kg−1), and PBS (56.8%) were higher on termite mounds. While, electrical conductivity (0.03 dS m−1–0.06 dS m−1), exchangeable K (0.52–0.93 cmol kg−1) and Na (0.02–0.03 cmol kg−1) showed increasing trend with the distance from the mound base. Our results indicated that termite mounds are important sinks of organic matter and mineral nutrients, and hence contribute to the enhancement of soil fertility. Thus, for subsistent farmers the uses of termite mounds as a fertilizer present an opportunity to improve agricultural production.