Active Matrix Flat-panel Imagers Research Articles

Design and performance of a low noise, 128-channel ASIC preamplifier for readout of active matrix flat-panel imaging arrays

Design architecture and performance measurements of a low noise, 128-channel application-specific-integrated-circuit (ASIC) preamplifier are reported. The ASIC was designed for readout of active matrix flat-panel imager (AMFPI) arrays. Such arrays, which presently can be made as large as 41 cm×41 cm and with pixel-to-pixel pitches down to ∼70 μm, require large numbers of low noise, high density, custom integrated readout circuits. The design of this new chip is specifically tailored for research and development of active matrix flat-panel arrays for various medical imaging applications. The design architecture includes the following features: (1) Programmable signal gain which allows acquisition of a wide range of signal sizes from various array designs so as to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio; (2) Correlated double sampling (CDS) which significantly reduces certain noise components; (3) Pipelined readout (simultaneously sampling and multiplexing signals) which reduces image acquisition time; (4) Programmable bandwidth controls which balance noise and acquisition speed; and (5) Two selectable modes of output multiplexing (64:1, 16:1) for slow or fast readout. In this paper, detailed measurements of various performance parameters are presented. These measurements include noise characteristics, the relationship between bandwidth and noise, signal response linearity, channel-to-channel and pipeline cross-talk, signal gain and gain variation across channels, and the effect of sampling methods on noise. These characterizations indicate that the performance of the ASIC has achieved the original design goals.

Front-end electronics for imaging detectors

Front-end electronics for imaging detectors with large numbers of pixels (10 5–10 7) is reviewed. The noise limits as a function of detector capacitance and power dissipation are presented for CMOS technology. Active matrix flat panel imagers (AMFPIs) are discussed and their potential noise performance is illustrated.

Investigation into the physical characteristics of active matrix flat panel imagers for radiotherapy.

The effect of physical characteristics on active matrix flat panel imagers (AMFPIs) at megavoltage energies is studied. The detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of both direct and indirect AMFPIs is modeled using a modified cascade analysis combined with Monte Carlo simulations. It is found that for a given thickness of the sensitive layer less than about 1 mm, there should be no significant difference between the detection techniques, but for larger mass thicknesses (> or = 1 mm) there should be an advantage to using direct detection if such thick layers can be manufactured. The effect of the front plate on both direct and indirect techniques is also explored in terms of both the DQE and scatter rejection. It is found that for small sensitive layer thicknesses (< or =0.3 mm) a front plate thickness of about 1 mm Cu is optimal, whereas for larger mass thicknesses about 0.4 mm Cu should lead to better image quality.

Detective quantum efficiency of a direct-detection active matrix flat panel imager at megavoltage energies.

The use of an amorphous selenium (a-Se) based direct-detection active matrix flat-panel imager (AMFPI) is studied for megavoltage imaging. The detector consists of a 1.2 mm copper front plate and 200 microm a-Se layer, and has a 85 microm pixel pitch. The Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), Noise Power Spectrum (NPS), and Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) are measured for 6 and 15 MV photon beams. A theoretical expression for the DQE is derived using a recently developed formalism for nonelementary cascade stages. A comparison of theory with experiment is good for the 6 and 15 MV beams. The model is used to explore the DQE for more typical pixel sizes. The results indicate that with proper modifications, such as a larger a-Se thickness, a direct flat-panel AMFPI is a very promising detector for megavoltage imaging.

Additive noise properties of active matrix flat‐panel imagers

A detailed theoretical and empirical investigation of additive noise for indirect detection, active matrix flat-panel imagers (AMFPIs) has been performed. Such imagers comprise a pixelated array, incorporating photodiodes and thin-film transistors (TFTs), and an associated electronic acquisition system. A theoretical model of additive noise, defined as the noise of an imaging system in the absence of radiation, has been developed. This model is based upon an equivalent-noise-circuit representation of an AMFPI. The model contains a number of uncorrelated noise components which have been designated as pixel noise, data line thermal noise, externally coupled noise, preamplifier noise and digitization noise. Pixel noise is further divided into the following components: TFT thermal noise, shot and 1/f noise associated with the TFT and photodiode leakage currents, and TFT transient noise. Measurements of various additive noise components were carried out on a prototype imaging system based on a 508 microm pitch, 26 x 26 cm2 array. Other measurements were performed in the absence of the array, involving discrete components connected to the preamplifier input. Overall, model predictions of total additive noise as well as of pixel, preamplifier, and data line thermal noise components were in agreement with results of their measured counterparts. For the imaging system examined, the model predicts that pixel noise is dominated by shot and 1/f noise components of the photodiode and TFT at frame times above approximately 1 s. As frame time decreases, pixel noise is increasingly dominated by TFT thermal noise. Under these conditions, the reasonable degree of agreement observed between measurements and model predictions provides strong evidence that the role of TFT thermal noise has been properly incorporated into the model. Finally, the role of the resistance and capacitance of array data lines in the model was investigated using discrete component circuits at the preamplifier input. Measurements of preamplifier noise and data line thermal noise components as a function of input capacitance and resistance were found to be in reasonable agreement with model predictions.

A quantitative investigation of additive noise reduction for active matrix flat-panel imagers using compensation lines.

A quantitative investigation of a technique for reducing correlated noise in indirect detection active matrix flat-panel imagers has been reported. Correlated noise in such systems arises from the coupling of electronic noise, originating from fluctuations in external sources such as power supplies and ambient electromagnetic sources, to the imaging array via its address lines. The noise reduction technique involves the use of signals from columns of compensation line pixels located in relatively close proximity to the columns of normal imaging pixels on the array. Compensation line pixels are designed to be as sensitive to externally-coupled noise as columns of normal imaging pixels but are insensitive to incident radiation. For each imaging pixel, correlated noise is removed by subtracting from the imaging pixel signal a signal derived from compensation line pixels located on the same row. The effectiveness of various implementations of this correction has been examined through measurements of signal and noise from individual pixels as well as of noise power spectra. These measurements were performed both in the absence of radiation as well as with x rays. The effectiveness of the correction was also demonstrated qualitatively by means of an image of a hand phantom. It was found that the use of a single compensation line dramatically reduces external noise through removal of the correlated noise component. While this form of the correction increases non-radiation-related uncorrelated noise, the effect can be largely reduced through the introduction of multiple compensation lines. Finally, a position-dependent correction based on compensation lines on both sides of the array was found to be effective when the magnitude of the correlated noise varied linearly across the array.

Strategies to improve the signal and noise performance of active matrix, flat-panel imagers for diagnostic x-ray applications.

A theoretical investigation of factors limiting the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of active matrix flat-panel imagers (AMFPIs), and of methods to overcome these limitations, is reported. At the higher exposure levels associated with radiography, the present generation of AMFPIs is capable of exhibiting DQE performance equivalent, or superior, to that of existing film-screen and computed radiography systems. However, at exposure levels commonly encountered in fluoroscopy, AMFPIs exhibit significantly reduced DQE and this problem is accentuated at higher spatial frequencies. The problem applies both to AMFPIs that rely on indirect detection as well as direct detection of the incident radiation. This reduced performance derives from the relatively large magnitude of the square of the total additive noise compared to the system gain for existing AMFPIs. In order to circumvent these restrictions, a variety of strategies to decrease additive noise and enhance system gain are proposed. Additive noise could be reduced through improved preamplifier, pixel and array design, including the incorporation of compensation lines to sample external line noise. System gain could be enhanced through the use of continuous photodiodes, pixel amplifiers, or higher gain x-ray converters such as lead iodide. The feasibility of these and other strategies is discussed and potential improvements to DQE performance are quantified through a theoretical investigation of a variety of hypothetical 200 microm pitch designs. At low exposures, such improvements could greatly increase the magnitude of the low spatial frequency component of the DQE, rendering it practically independent of exposure while simultaneously reducing the falloff in DQE at higher spatial frequencies. Furthermore, such noise reduction and gain enhancement could lead to the development of AMFPIs with high DQE performance which are capable of providing both high resolution radiographic images, at approximately 100 microm pixel resolution, as well as variable resolution fluoroscopic images at 30 fps.

Flat Panel Horizons—Inside the World of Active Matrix Flat Panel Imager (AMFPI) Technology

Flat Panel Horizons—Inside the World of Active Matrix Flat Panel Imager (AMFPI) Technology

Cone-beam computed tomography with a flat-panel imager: effects of image lag.

A system for cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) has been developed based upon the technology of active matrix flat-panel imagers (FPIs), and the system has demonstrated the potential for fully three-dimensional volumetric imaging with high spatial and contrast resolution. This paper investigates the effects of image lag (arising from charge trapping and release in the FPI pixels) upon CBCT reconstructions. Hypotheses were derived based upon a simple, geometrical/physical model, suggesting that image lag in the projection data results primarily in two artifacts: a spatial blurring artifact in the direction opposite to the direction of rotation (called a "comet") and a line artifact along the direction of the first few projections (called a "streak"). The hypotheses were tested by means of computer simulations and experimental measurements that yielded CBCT images of a simple cylindrical water phantom containing an attenuating rod of varying size and composition. The computer simulations generated projection images based upon analysis of the system geometry and a simple model of the FPI that allowed free adjustment of the image lag. Experimental measurements involved CBCT scans of the phantom under various conditions and modes of acquisition followed by examination of the resulting CBCT axial slices for lag artifacts. Measurements were performed as a function of exposure level, position and contrast of the rod, and for three modes of acquisition designed to isolate and/or minimize the two hypothesized artifacts. The results clearly illustrate the comet and streak artifacts, particularly in relation to high-contrast objects imaged at high exposure levels. The significance of such artifacts under clinical conditions is expected to be small, considering the magnitude of the effect relative to the morphology and composition of typical anatomy. The artifacts may become appreciable, however, in the presence of high-contrast objects, such as marker BBs, dental fillings, and metal prosthetics. A procedural method of reducing lag artifacts is demonstrated.

An asynchronous, pipelined, electronic acquisition system for Active Matrix Flat-Panel Imagers (AMFPIs)

The development of a full-custom electronic acquisition system designed for readout of large-area active matrix flat-panel imaging arrays is reported. The arrays, which comprise two-dimensional matrices of pixels utilizing amorphous silicon thin-film transistors, are themselves under development for a wide variety of X-ray imaging applications. The acquisition system was specifically designed to facilitate detailed, quantitative investigations of the properties of these novel imaging arrays and contains significant enhancements compared to a previously developed acquisition system. These enhancements include pipelined preamplifier circuits to allow faster readout speed, expanded addressing capabilities allowing a maximum of 4096 array data lines, and on-board summing of image frames. The values of many acquisition system parameters, including timings and voltages, may be specified and downloaded from a host computer. Once acquisition is enabled, the system operates asynchronously of its host computer. The system allows image capture in both radiographic mode (corresponding to the capture of individual X-ray images), and fluoroscopic mode (corresponding to the capture of a continual series of X-ray images). A detailed description of the system architecture and the underlying motivations for the design is reported in this paper.

Initial performance evaluation of an indirect-detection, active matrix flat-panel imager (AMFPI) prototype for megavoltage imaging

Purpose: The development of the first prototype active matrix flat-panel imager (AMFPI) capable of radiographic and fluoroscopic megavoltage operation is reported. The signal and noise performance of individual pixels is empirically quantified. Results of an observer-dependent study of imaging performance, using a contrast-detail phantom, are detailed and radiographic patient images are shown. Finally, a theoretical investigation of the zero-frequency detective quantum efficiency (DQE) performance of such imagers, using a cascaded systems formalism, is presented.Methods and Materials: The imager is based on a 508-μm pitch, 26 × 26 cm2 array which detects radiation indirectly via an overlying copper plate + phosphor screen converter.Results: Due to its excellent optical coupling, the imager exhibits sensitivity superior to that of video-based systems. With an ∼133 mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Tb screen the system is x-ray quantum-noise-limited down to ∼0.3 cGy, conservatively, and extensions of this behavior to even lower doses by means of reduced additive electronic noise is predicted. The observer-dependent study indicates performance superior to that of conventional radiotherapy film while the patient images demonstrate good image quality at 1 to 4 MU. The theoretical studies suggest that, with a 133 mg/cm2 Gd2O2S:Tb screen, the system would provide DQE performance equivalent to that of video-based systems and that almost a factor of two improvement in DQE is achievable through the incorporation of a 400 mg/cm2 screen.Conclusion: The reported prototype imager is the first megavoltage AMFPI having performance characteristics consistent with practical clinical operation. The superior contrast-detail sensitivity of the imager allows the capture of high-quality 6- and 15-MV images at minimal dose. Moreover, significant performance improvements, including extension of the operational range up to full portal doses, appear feasible. Such capabilities could be of considerable practical benefit in patient localization and verification.

Signal, noise power spectrum, and detective quantum efficiency of indirect-detection flat-panel imagers for diagnostic radiology.

The performance of an indirect-detection, active matrix flat-panel imager (FPI) at diagnostic energies is reported in terms of measured and theoretical signal size, noise power spectrum (NPS), and detective quantum efficiency (DQE). Based upon a 1536 x 1920 pixel, 127 microns pitch array of a-Si:H thin-film transistors and photodiodes, the FPI was developed as a prototype for examination of the potential of flat-panel technology in diagnostic x-ray imaging. The signal size per unit exposure (x-ray sensitivity) was measured for the FPI incorporating five commercially available Gd2O2S:Tb converting screens at energies 70-120 kVp. One-dimensional and two-dimensional NPS and DQE were measured for the FPI incorporating three such converters and as a function of the incident exposure. The measurements support the hypothesis that FPIs have significant potential for application in diagnostic radiology. A cascaded systems model that has shown good agreement with measured individual pixel signal and noise properties is employed to describe the performance of various FPI designs and configurations under a variety of diagnostic imaging conditions. Theoretical x-ray sensitivity, NPS, and DQE are compared to empirical results, and good agreement is observed in each case. The model is used to describe the potential performance of FPIs incorporating a recently developed, enhanced array that is commercially available and has been proposed for testing and application in diagnostic radiography and fluoroscopy. Under conditions corresponding to chest radiography, the analysis suggests that such systems can potentially meet or even exceed the DQE performance of existing technology, such as screen-film and storage phosphor systems; however, under conditions corresponding to general fluoroscopy, the typical exposure per frame is such that the DQE is limited by the total system gain and additive electronic noise. The cascaded systems analysis provides a valuable means of identifying the limiting stages of the imaging system, a tool for system optimization, and a guide for developing strategies of FPI design for various imaging applications.

Empirical investigation of the signal performance of a high‐resolution, indirect detection, active matrix flat‐panel imager (AMFPI) for fluoroscopic and radiographic operation

Signal properties of the first large-area, high resolution, active matrix, flat-panel imager are reported. The imager is based on an array of 1536 x 1920 pixels with a pixel-to-pixel pitch of 127 microns. Each pixel consists of a discrete amorphous silicon n-i-p photodiode coupled to an amorphous silicon thin-film transistor. The imager detects incident x rays indirectly by means of an intensifying screen placed over the array. External acquisition electronics send control signals to the array and process analog imaging signals from the pixels. Considerations for operation of the imager in both fluoroscopic and radiographic modes are detailed and empirical signal performance data are presented with an emphasis on exploring similarities and differences between the two modes. Measurements which characterize the performance of the imager were performed as a function of operational parameters in the absence or presence of illumination from a light-emitting diode or x rays. These measurements include characterization of the drift and magnitude of the pixel dark signal, the size of the pixel switching transient, the temporal behavior of pixel sampling and the implied maximum frame rate, the dependence of relative pixel efficiency and pixel response on photodiode reverse bias voltage and operational mode, the degree of linearity of pixel response, and the trapping and release of charge from metastable states in the photodiodes. In addition, X-ray sensitivity as a function of energy for a variety of phosphor screens for both fluoroscopic and radiographic operation is reported. Example images of a line-pair pattern and an anthropomorphic phantom in each mode are presented along with a radiographic image of a human hand. General and specific improvements in imager design are described and anticipated developments are discussed. This represents the first systematic investigation of the operation and properties in both radiographic and fluoroscopic modes of an imager incorporating such an array.