Active Fluid Seepage Research Articles

Geochemical signatures of intense episodic anaerobic oxidation of methane in near-surface sediments of a recently discovered cold seep (Kveithola trough, NW Barents Sea)

At cold seep environments, the detection of large 34S enrichments within bulk sulphide minerals has been frequently used as a proxy to infer the vertical migrations of the sulphate-methane transition zone (SMTZ). Processes related to the oxidative part of the sulphur cycle can alter the original stable sulphur isotope composition (δ34S) of the solid sulphur phases, in particular at the sediment-water interface. Identification of paleo and present positions of methane fronts in the sedimentary records requires the use of multiple geochemical proxies. Authigenic enrichment of Mo has been demonstrated to represent a valid and durable tracer of the past SMTZ depth fluctuations and of the intensities of the related methane seepages. This study is based on two closely-spaced short cores collected from the Main Drift of the Kveithola trough, a glacially-carved depression located in northwestern Barents Sea. Active fluid seepage has been recently reported in this area and a gas flare was specifically observed in proximity of the sampling sites where the cores object of our study were retrieved. In order to collect evidences of the possible occurrence of anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) at the sediment-water interface of the investigated area and infer the entity of the associated methane flux, we combined the analyses of reduced sulphur species δ34S, total organic carbon and redox-sensitive elements. The negative δ34S values within the extracted solid sulphur phases (up to −49.1‰ for pyritic sulphur) show that organoclastic sulphate reduction (OSR) coupled with disproportionation of sulphur intermediates are the only active processes in the near-surface sediments. However, moderate to strong enrichments of Mo detected in the relatively organic carbon poor intervals of both cores and the lack of concurrent enrichments of Co, Cu, Ni, V and Zn, usually associated to OSR-dominated environment, suggested that the sulphidic conditions favouring the Mo enrichments were produced by AOM. Therefore, we infer that high methane flux events characterized the drift area of the Kveithola, occasionally moving upward the SMTZ and thus inducing intense AOM in proximity of the sediment-water interface of this part of the trough. Our results confirmed the validity of sedimentary Mo as an indicator of the occurrence and intensity of past methane seepages.

Acoustic and biological characteristics of seafloor depressions in the North Yellow Sea Basin of China: Active fluid seepage in shallow water seafloor

High resolution multibeam bathymetry revealed the occurrence of numerous craterlike depressions, so-called pockmarks, in the sea floor of the North Yellow Sea Basin (NYSB). To investigate whether these pockmarks are related to any type of fluid flow or gas seepage from subsurface stratum, acoustic survey and box samplings were conducted in a selected area containing several typical pockmarks. This allowed for an integrated analysis of the morphology, distribution, and subsurface strata as well as a direct comparison of seafloor characteristics among different areas inside and outside of a pockmark. Additionally, surface sediments were analyzed for particle structure and grain size. Based on the combination of multibeam bathymetry and backscatter intensity data, 282 seafloor depressions were accurately identified. Moreover, the formation of pockmark can be attributed to existence of gas chimneys and other shallow gases revealed by shallow seismic profile records in the subsurface strata. Sediments inside and outside the pockmark showed remarkable discrepancies in terms of grain size, and benthic fauna. Additionally, strong internal reflection area was observed inside the depressions where benthic habitats are abundant and sediments contain strawberry pyrite and carbonate cementation. Side scan sonar also recorded sediment plumes in the water column, which indicates that the pockmarks are still active. Several “pearl-string-like” accumulations of pockmark were found in the study area, which well agree with the distribution of buried channels and lakes. These results thus provide new insights in interpreting shallow water fluid seepage, with implications for our current knowledge of overall sedimentation process in offshore continental shelves.

Cold-water corals and hydrocarbon-rich seepage in Pompeia Province (Gulf of Cádiz) – living on the edge

Abstract. Azooxanthellate cold-water corals (CWCs) have a global distribution and have commonly been found in areas of active fluid seepage. The relationship between the CWCs and these fluids, however, is not well understood. This study aims to unravel the relationship between CWC development and hydrocarbon-rich seepage in Pompeia Province (Gulf of Cádiz, Atlantic Ocean). This region is comprised of mud volcanoes (MVs), coral ridges and fields of coral mounds, which are all affected by the tectonically driven seepage of hydrocarbon-rich fluids. These types of seepage, for example, focused, scattered, diffused or eruptive, is tightly controlled by a complex system of faults and diapirs. Early diagenetic carbonates from the currently active Al Gacel MV exhibit δ13C signatures down to −28.77 ‰ Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB), which indicate biologically derived methane as the main carbon source. The same samples contain 13C-depleted lipid biomarkers diagnostic for archaea such as crocetane (δ13C down to −101.2 ‰ VPDB) and pentamethylicosane (PMI) (δ13C down to −102.9 ‰ VPDB), which is evidence of microbially mediated anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). This is further supported by next generation DNA sequencing data, demonstrating the presence of AOM-related microorganisms (ANMEs, archaea, sulfate-reducing bacteria) in the carbonate. Embedded corals in some of the carbonates and CWC fragments exhibit less negative δ13C values (−8.08 ‰ to −1.39 ‰ VPDB), pointing against the use of methane as the carbon source. Likewise, the absence of DNA from methane- and sulfide-oxidizing microbes in sampled coral does not support the idea of these organisms having a chemosynthetic lifestyle. In light of these findings, it appears that the CWCs benefit rather indirectly from hydrocarbon-rich seepage by using methane-derived authigenic carbonates as a substratum for colonization. At the same time, chemosynthetic organisms at active sites prevent coral dissolution and necrosis by feeding on the seeping fluids (i.e., methane, sulfate, hydrogen sulfide), allowing cold-water corals to colonize carbonates currently affected by hydrocarbon-rich seepage.

Newly Discovered Hydrate-Bearing Structure in Lake Baikal

A new deep-water hydrate-bearing structure, named after Moscow State University (MSU), has been discovered on July 29, 2018 during the geological-geophysical research of the Class@Baikal project. The structure lies on a fault scarp at the bottom of the central basin of Lake Baikal at a water depth of 1380 m (coordinates N 52°52′/E 107°07′). The “MSU” structure is sub-isometric in planar view, 500 m in diameter, and reveals a multi-summit morphology. Results of initial investigations show an active fluid seepage and gashydrate formation within the discovered structure. Laboratory analyses of the sampled gases indicate a significant concentration of thermogenic hydrocarbons.

Newly discovered hydrate-bearing structure in Lake Baikal

A new deep-water hydrate-bearing structure, named after MSU, has been discovered the 29th of July 2018 during the geological-geophysical research cruise of the Class@Baikal project. The structure lies on a fault scarp at the bottom of the central basin of Lake Baikal at a water depth of 1380 m (coordinates N 52°52’ / E 107°07’). The “MSU” structure is sub-isometric in planar view, 500 m in diameter, and reveals a multi-summit morphology. Results of initial investigations show an active fluid seepage and gas-hydrate formation within the discovered structure. Laboratory analyses of the sampled gases indicate a significant concentration of thermogenic hydrocarbons.

Evidence of active fluid seepage (AFS) in the southern region of the central Mediterranean Sea

Active fluid seepage (AFS) at the seafloor is a global phenomenon associated with seafloor morphologies in different geodynamic contexts. Advanced geophysical techniques have allowed geoscientists to characterise pockmarks, mounds and flares associated with AFS. We present a range of new marine geological data acquired in the southern region of the central Mediterranean Sea (northern Sicily continental margin, northwestern Sicily Channel and offshore of the Maltese Islands), which allow us to identify AFSs. AFSs are spatially distributed as clusters, aligned or isolated at different depths, ranging from few decametres offshore of the Maltese Islands; up to 400 m offshore of northern Sicily and in the northwestern Sicily Channel. Mounds have heights ranging from 2 to 15 m and form hummocky surfaces. Seafloor samples were collected at the top of the mounds and were analysed using a SEM with an EDX. Geochemical features reveal that seafloor samples are slightly enriched in O, S and Ba and seem to indicate the existence of an external source of fluids and the occurrence of sediment-fluids interaction processes. Pockmarks with sub-circular planform shapes and U/V-shaped cross-sections are found in sizes ranging from 5 to 530 m. Gas flares occur on both the continental shelf as well as the upper slope.

Giant depressions on the Chatham Rise offshore New Zealand – Morphology, structure and possible relation to fluid expulsion and bottom currents

Several giant seafloor depressions were investigated on the Chatham Rise offshore New Zealand using mainly bathymetric and seismic data, supplemented by sediment cores and reported porewater geochemistry data. The depressions have diameters of up to 11 km and occur on the southern flank of the Chatham Rise in water depths between 600 and 900 m, i.e. roughly underneath the location of the strongest thermal gradients of the Subtropical Front (STF) and characterized by eastward flowing currents. With up to 150 m of relief the depressions cut into post-Miocene deposits. Some of the depressions are partially filled with drift deposits that have similar seismic characteristics as the surrounding sediments and consist of alternations of silty muds and silts. Seismic profiles also show completely filled depressions that no longer have a bathymetric expression. Despite several pipe structures indicating vertical fluid flow, neither active fluid seepage nor indications for past fluid seepage are present at the seafloor of the Chatham Rise. Also, both pore water geochemistry and geophysical data do not show indications for an existing or past gas hydrate system in the area. Instead, seismic data suggest widespread polygonal faulting and the presence of silica diagenetic fronts. The release of mineral-bound water during silica diagenesis or fluid expulsion during sediment compaction can explain the presence of vertical fluid flow features but not the giant depressions themselves. Instead, the depressions are interpreted as the result of scouring by strong bottom currents for which fluid venting may have created the nucleation points.

Methane-derived stromatolitic carbonate crust from an active fluid seepage in the western basin of the Sea of Marmara: Mineralogical, isotopic and molecular geochemical characterization

Cold seeps along the North Anatolian fault in the Sea of Marmara (Turkey) were explored during submersible dives of the Marsite cruise in November 2014 when sediments, pore waters and carbonate crusts were sampled at active fluid seeping sites. In this study, we investigate the mineralogy, carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions and the lipid biomarkers of a carbonate crust from the western Tekirdağ basin of the Sea of Marmara. This crust exhibits a laminated domal structure that resembles stromatolite. The mineralogy of authigenic seep-carbonate is mostly represented by aragonite associated with minor amounts of high-magnesian calcite. The abundance of pyrite associated with the authigenic seep-carbonate points to very intense bacterial sulfate reduction. The carbon (−42.6‰ to −34.4‰) and oxygen (−1.5‰ to +1.1‰) isotopic compositions of the authigenic seep-carbonate crust indicate that carbonate precipitation was related to anaerobic oxidation of methane and occurred in mixtures of bottom seawater with brackish water expelled from the underlying sediments. Abundant microbial lipid biomarkers with negative δ13C values (−121‰ to −96‰), confirm that anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) coupled with sulfate reduction, was mediated by methanotrophic archaea (ANME) and sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB). Diagnostic lipid fingerprints indicate that ANME-2 archaea and associated SRB were the prevalent AOM-mediating consortia, which characterize moderate to high methane flow at this site. Moreover, changes in microbial lipid distribution within the carbonate crust suggest a variation in the intensity of methane emission.

First seep-dwelling Desbruyeresia (Gastropoda: Abyssochrysoidea) species discovered from a serpentinite-hosted seep in the Southeastern Mariana Forearc

ABSTRACTThe South Chamorro Seamount (13°47'N, 146°00'E) on the southeastern Mariana Forearc is one of a series of serpentine mud volcanoes in the area, and hosts an active fluid seepage area on its summit. During a recent research cruise three specimens of a small rissoid-like gastropod were collected with chemoautotrophic bivalves. Subsequent morphological and molecular investigations revealed it to be a novel species of Desbruyeresia (Abyssochrysoidea: Provannidae), described herein as Desbruyeresia chamorrensis n. sp. Although all known specimens had a heavily corroded apex, so the protoconch could not be observed, its radular characteristics are very similar to those of other Desbruyeresia species. Phylogenetic reconstruction using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene also supports its placement within Desbruyeresia. The new species is distinguished from all other described congeners by having more numerous (17–20) axial ribs on the teleoconch, and a broad shell for the genus (shell width to height ratio 0.6–0.65). Living Desbruyeresia were previously only known from hydrothermal vents and this is the first species known to inhabit seeps or serpentinite-hosted chemosynthetic habitats.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:3BDA021E-45ED-439A-9D5D-402BBB29293E

Cold seeps at the salt front in the Lower Congo Basin II: The impact of spatial and temporal evolution of salt-tectonics on hydrocarbon seepage

This study investigates the distribution and evolution of seafloor seepage in the vicinity of the salt front, i.e., the seaward boundary of salt-induced deformation in the Lower Congo Basin (LCB). Seafloor topography, backscatter data and TV-sled observations indicate active fluid seepage from the seafloor directly at the salt front, whereas suspected seepage sites appear to be inactive at a distance of >10 km landward of the deformation front. High resolution multichannel seismic data give detailed information on the structural development of the area and its influence on the activity of individual seeps during the geologic evolution of the salt front region. The unimpeded migration of gas from fan deposits along sedimentary strata towards the base of the gas hydrate stability zone within topographic ridges associated with relatively young salt-tectonic deformation facilitates seafloor seepage at the salt front. Bright and flat spots within sedimentary successions suggest geological trapping of gas on the flanks of mature salt structures in the eastern part of the study area. Onlap structures associated with fan deposits which were formed after the onset of salt-tectonic deformation represent potential traps for gas, which may hinder gas migration towards seafloor seeps. Faults related to the thrusting of salt bodies seawards also disrupt along-strata gas migration pathways. Additionally, the development of an effective gas hydrate seal after the cessation of active salt-induced uplift and the near-surface location of salt bodies may hamper or prohibit seafloor seepage in areas of advanced salt-tectonic deformation. This process of seaward shifting active seafloor seepage may propagate as seaward migrating deformation affects Congo Fan deposits on the abyssal plain. These observations of the influence of the geologic evolution of the salt front area on seafloor seepage allows for a characterization of the large variety of hydrocarbon seepage activity throughout this compressional tectonic setting.

Rare earth elements in cold seep carbonates from the Niger delta

The circulation of methane-rich fluids at cold seeps often leads to precipitation of authigenic carbonates mediated by microbial activity, which can be used as archives of fluid seepage on continental margins. In this study, we have investigated the potential of using rare earth element (REE) concentrations in authigenic carbonates for tracing fluid sources and providing information on associated biogeochemical processes at cold seeps. We have examined various chemical procedures for the analysis of REE in authigenic carbonates, and present a robust method using dilute acetic acid solution that allows the extraction of REE from carbonate phases with reduced contamination from Fe–Mn oxides and detrital minerals. Using this method, we analysed a series of carbonate samples collected at various deep-sea sites of active fluid seepage on the Niger Delta for their REE and trace element concentrations, δ 13C and, δ 18O values and 87Sr/ 86Sr isotope compositions. We show that the REE composition of cold seep carbonates is controlled primarily by that of the fluid from which they have precipitated. Our results also suggest that significant REE fractionation can occur during carbonate precipitation, which can be related to various degrees of REE complexation by organic versus carbonate ligands in response to changing pore water chemical composition for parameters such as carbonate alkalinity.

Diversity and distribution of cold-seep fauna associated with different geological and environmental settings at mud volcanoes and pockmarks of the Nile Deep-Sea Fan

The Nile Deep-Sea Fan (NDSF) is located on the passive continental margin off Egypt and is characterized by the occurrence of active fluid seepage such as brine lakes, pockmarks and mud volcanoes. This study characterizes the structure of faunal assemblages of such active seepage systems of the NDSF. Benthic communities associated with reduced, sulphidic microhabitats such as sediments and carbonate crusts were sampled by remotely operated vehicles during two cruises in 2006 (BIONIL) and 2007 (MEDECO). Environmental conditions and biological factors including family-level faunal composition, density and diversity were measured at local and regional scales. Significant differences were detected at different spatial scales: (1) the fauna of reduced habitats differed substantially in activity, diversity and biomass from the non-seep environment at similar water depth, (2) cold seep microhabitats showed differences in community structure and composition related to substratum type as well as to the intensity and location of fluid emissions.

Geochemistry and mineralogy of sediments and authigenic carbonates from the Malta Plateau, Strait of Sicily (Central Mediterranean): Relationships with mud/fluid release from a mud volcano system

A mud volcano field was recently discovered within the Malta Plateau in the Strait of Sicily (Central Mediterranean Sea). Box-core sediments and associated authigenic carbonates have been collected in water depths of 140–170 m from two distinctive sectors of the area, and analyzed for major, trace and rare earth elements, stable isotopes, and mineralogy. Relative homogeneity in the mineralogy and geochemistry of bulk sediments, and 210Pb activity distributions, argue against an active mud ejection activity. In the Malta Plateau western sector, the sediments show high concentrations of Fe, As, Sb, and Mo, exceeding the background values estimated for the Strait of Sicily. Active fluid seepage in this area is thought to be responsible for these enrichments and for the formation of authigenic carbonate crusts. Evidence of bacterial involvement in carbonate (mainly aragonite) formation is recorded in the authigenic crusts, which contain flat and spiralled filaments resembling Beggiatoa-like sulphide oxidising bacteria and biofilm-like remains which occur inside the interspaces. Carbonate crusts consistently show extremely negative δ 13C values (down to − 49‰) that suggest contribution of carbon originating from anaerobic methane oxidation. Heavy oxygen isotopic compositions of the authigenic carbonates (2−3‰ higher than those in box-core sediments) are interpreted as due to precipitation from fluids enriched in 18O due to seepage of deep, isotopically-heavy, relict Messinian brines.

Permeability of macro-cracked argillite under confinement: Gas and water testing

Argillite is considered a privileged candidate for long term nuclear waste storage. Yet argillite rock drilling often induces surface cracks that locally modify its permeability. This phenomenon located in a so-called Excavation Damaged Zone (EDZ) is of importance since permeability increase means lesser confinement capacity of the argillite rock. Potentially influencial phenomena occur when argillite is subjected simultaneously to normal stress variations and fluid seepage. Therefore, this extensive experimental study (6 month duration) on macro-cracked Callovo-Oxfordian argillite is aimed at distinguishing the contribution to rock permeability of mechanical loading (crack opening and closing) on one part and of chemically active fluid seepage (water) on the other. Steady state gas flow tests show that permeability K mainly depends upon crack closure cc, with values on the order of 10 −14 m 2. Permeability from transient water flow tests varies with test duration from 10 −18 to 10 −21 m 2. In both test types, K also depends upon confining pressure P c, mainly during the first three loading–unloading phases. A difference between water injection tests and gas injection tests is that the water-saturated rock sample swells. Swelling does not contribute to unload the crack zone but rather creates additional closure and pressure in the crack area. Indeed, water permeability is shown to depend upon cumulated crack closure a c, which sums up swelling and confinement-induced crack closure. Finally, this study outlines the strong effect of water upon crack closure amplitude and permeability. After a relatively short time (on the order of ten days), water flow within the crack drives the permeability back to very low values close to sound rock permeability (10 −21 m 2). This reflects a complete self-sealing of the macro-crack, which is an important factor for nuclear waste repository safety.

Submarine landslides in the Santa Barbara Channel as potential tsunami sources

Abstract. Recent investigations using the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institutes (MBARI) Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) "Ventana" and "Tiburon" and interpretation of MBARI's EM 300 30 kHz multibeam bathymetric data show that the northern flank of the Santa Barbara Basin has experienced massive slope failures. Of particular concern is the large (130 km2) Goleta landslide complex located off Coal Oil Point near the town of Goleta, that measures 14.6-km long extending from a depth of 90 m to nearly 574 m deep and is 10.5 km wide. We estimate that approximately 1.75 km3 has been displaced by this slide during the Holocene. This feature is a complex compound submarine landslide that contains both surfical slump blocks and mud flows in three distinct segments. Each segment is composed of a distinct head scarp, down-dropped head block and a slide debris lobe. The debris lobes exhibit hummocky topography in the central areas that appear to result from compression during down slope movement. The toes of the western and eastern lobes are well defined in the multibeam image, whereas the toe of the central lobe is less distinct. Continuous seismic reflection profiles show that many buried slide debris lobes exist and comparison of the deformed reflectors with ODP Drill Site 149, Hole 893 suggest that at least 200 000 years of failure have occurred in the area (Fisher et al., 2005a). Based on our interpretation of the multibeam bathymetry and seismic reflection profiles we modeled the potential tsunami that may have been produced from one of the three surfical lobes of the Goleta slide. This model shows that a 10 m high wave could have run ashore along the cliffs of the Goleta shoreline. Several other smaller (2 km2 and 4 km2) slides are located on the northern flank of the Santa Barbara Basin, both to the west and east of Goleta slide and on the Conception fan along the western flank of the basin. One slide, named the Gaviota slide, is 3.8 km2, 2.6 km long and 1.7 km wide. A distinct narrow scar extends from near the eastern head wall of this slide for over 2km eastward toward the Goleta slide and may represent either an incipient failure or a remnant of a previous failure. Push cores collected within the main head scar of this slide consisted of hydrogen sulfide bearing mud, possibly suggesting active fluid seepage and a vibra-core penetrated ~50 cm of recent sediment overlying colluvium or landslide debris confirming the age of ~300 years as proposed by Lee et al. (2004). However, no seeps or indications of recent movement were observed during our ROV investigation within this narrow head scar indicating that seafloor in the scar is draped with mud.

Estimates of methane output from mud extrusions at the erosive convergent margin off Costa Rica

Four mud extrusions were investigated along the erosive subduction zone off Costa Rica. Active fluid seepage from these structures is indicated by chemosynthetic communities, authigenic carbonates and methane plumes in the water column. We estimate the methane output from the individual mud extrusions using two independent approaches. The first is based on the amount of CH 4 that becomes anaerobically oxidized in the sediment beneath areas covered by chemosynthetic communities, which ranges from 10 4 to 10 5 mol yr − 1 . The remaining portion of CH 4, which is released into the ocean, has been estimated to be 10 2–10 4 mol yr − 1 per mud extrusion. The second approach estimates the amount of CH 4 discharging into the water column based on measurements of the near-bottom methane distribution and current velocities. This approach yields estimates between 10 4–10 5 mol yr −1. The discrepancy of the amount of CH 4 emitted into the bottom water derived from the two approaches hints to methane seepage that cannot be accounted for by faunal growth, e.g. focused fluid emission through channels in sediments and fractures in carbonates. Extrapolated over the 48 mud extrusions discovered off Costa Rica, we estimate a CH 4 output of 20·10 6 mol yr − 1 from mud extrusions along this 350 km long section of the continental margin. These estimates of methane emissions at an erosional continental margin are considerably lower than those reported from mud extrusion at accretionary and passive margins. Almost half of the continental margins are described as non-accretionary. Assuming that the moderate emission of methane at the mud extrusions off Costa Rica are typical for this kind of setting, then global estimates of methane emissions from submarine mud extrusions, which are based on data of mud extrusions located at accretionary and passive continental margins, appear to be significantly too high.

Detection of low-chloride fluids beneath a cold seep field on the Nankai accretionary wedge off Kumano, south of Japan

Chemical and isotopic characteristics were determined for interstitial waters extracted from surface sediments in and around dense biological communities on the seafloor of the Nankai accretionary prism off Kumano, south of Japan. We found the following unique features when compared with usual interstitial water samples of normal seafloor in those of samples from bacterial mats on the Oomine Ridge, one of the outer ridge in the Nankai accretionary prism: (1) significant depletion of chloride concentration (maximum 10% depletion from bottom seawater), (2) high concentrations of CH4 and ΣCO2 (more than 660 μmol/kg and 60 mmol/kg, respectively), (3) sulfate depletion (more than 90% depletion compared to bottom seawater), and (4) δDH2O and δ18OH2O depletion [more than 4‰ and 0.7‰ depletion, respectively, compared to standard mean ocean water (SMOW)]. The highest CH4 value among these samples was comparable to the highest value so far reported at one of the most active seep areas in the Nankai Trough, suggesting that these sites should also be regarded as one of the most active seep sites in the Nankai Trough. The chemical compositions of the samples taken from the Oomine Ridge strongly suggest that the fluid originates not from normal sediment–seawater interaction at the sediment surface of hemipelagic environments, but from active seepage of fluids that are rich in CH4 and ΣCO2, depleted in Cl− and SO42−, and low in δDH2O and δ18OH2O compared to normal seawater. Values for the carbon isotopic composition (δ13CCH4) of the dissolved methane in the interstitial fluid [less than −70‰ PeeDee Belemnite (PDB)] and for the C2H6/CH4 ratio (less than 10−3) suggest that the methane originates from microbial production in a relatively shallow layer of sediment, not from the deep sedimentary layer of higher temperature than 60 °C at the depth of more than 300 m below the seafloor. The Cl−=0 mmol/kg extrapolated end-member δDH2O and δ18OH2O values of low-chloride fluids were −46±7‰ and −6.3±0.7‰ SMOW, respectively, suggesting that land-derived groundwater could be one of the possible sources for the low-Cl− fluids. Depth profiles of chloride concentrations of interstitial fluids show the heterogeneity of end members and upward fluid flow velocities suggest that active fluid seepage on the Oomine Ridge seems to be a localized phenomenon. Assuming steady-state emission of fluid from the cold seep vent, upward fluid flow velocities from the seeping vent are estimated to be 40–200 cm year−1, comparable to the previously reported values within the bacterial mats in the Nankai Trough accretionary wedge. Development of bacterial mat might favor slower advection, which might allow longer time for diagenetic reactions in the vent conduits, and consequently, carry more reductive compounds in the fluids.

Physiography of an active transpressive margin basin: high-resolution bathymetry of the Santa Barbara basin, Southern California continental borderland

High-resolution swath bathymetry and backscatter data from the Santa Barbara basin reveal a distinct assemblage of morphologic and sedimentologic features characteristic of the tectonically active setting of the basin. Such characteristics include the north–south asymmetry of the basin, the presence of an intra-basinal structural and morphologic high, extensive mass wasting, and fields of mounds and pockmarks. The north–south asymmetry of the basin and the increased abundance of slope failure along the northern basin slope likely reflect higher rates of tectonic shortening and sediment accumulation along the northern basin margin. High sedimentation rates lead to high pore water content of the sediment which, in combination with seismic shaking, may explain the abundance of mass wasting features even on shallowly inclined lower basin slopes. Mounds and pockmarks are the surface expression of locally extensive fluid seepage which we interpret to be driven by a combination of high sedimentation rates, a high organic content of sediment, and anoxic bottom water conditions during extended periods in Neogene and Quaternary times. During ROV dives we observed active fluid seepage to have occurred preferentially on the shelf and on a structural and topographic high, presumably due to structural focusing of migrating formation fluids. The preferred alignment of some pockmarks along faults is consistent with structurally controlled expulsion of formation fluids from underlying Neogene units. Despite the high tectonic activity of the basin, fault scarps are rare and only observed in areas of low sediment accumulation on the shelf and on topographic highs. Mass balance considerations suggest that sedimentation rates averaged over interseismic time scales are too high and scarp growth rates too low for scarps to be characteristic features of the basin floor. Long-term sediment accumulation rates that account for the effect of sediment compaction are low enough, however, to lead to long-wavelength surface expressions of the most active faults.

Structural control of fluid flow: offshore fluid seepage in the Santa Barbara Basin, California

Evidence of active and dormant fluid seepage in the Santa Barbara Basin is observed as active venting of gas and oil, bacterial mats, precipitates of authigenic carbonate, and mud and tar volcanoes. Fluid seepage occurs preferentially in the proximity to faults and faulted anticlines, and to slump scarps. Seepage next to faults and anticlines indicates that hydrocarbon migration and pore fluid expulsion is controlled structurally, with faults acting as preferred conduits for fluid flow across units of low matrix permeability.

Widespread fluid expulsion on a translational continental margin: Mud volcanoes, fault zones, headless canyons, and organic-rich substrate in Monterey Bay, California

Remotely operated vehicle (ROV)-based mapping of tectonic features, zones of anomalous reflectivity, and geomorphic targets in Monterey Bay, California, demonstrates the regional abundance of fluid expulsion along the active transform margin between the Pacific and North American plates. Cold seeps—extant communities characterized by chemosynthetic bivalves, bacterial mats, and rare tubeworms—are the surface manifestations of present-day fluid expulsion of sulfide- and methane-rich fluids, whereas slabs, veins, and chimneys of authigenic carbonate represent regions of either dormant methane-rich fluid expulsion, or areas where the present rate of flow is too low to support chemosynthetic fauna. We have found both active and dormant fluid seepage along fault zones, at the surface expression of mud volcanoes, on organic-rich or permeable substrate, and within headless canyons across a wide range of depths within Monterey Bay. The fluid egress at these sites may be driven by a combination of (1) pore-space reduction caused by rapid sedimentation and/or tectonic compaction related to residual Pacific–North America compression, and (2) increased buoyancy due to a decrease in pore-fluid density related to diagenesis and/or catagenesis at depth. Although provocative, the relationship between topographically driven aquifer discharge and sea-floor fluid expulsion remains speculative for Monterey Bay. The widespread distribution of fluid expulsion features controlled by a variety of conduits in Monterey Bay implies that cold seeps may be common features on translational margins.