Active Fire Protection Systems Research Articles

Fire protection as the underpinning of good process safety programs

This paper will provide an overview of the role of fire protection engineers in the mitigation phase of a process safety program. Fire protection engineers are involved in the assessment of hazards and the selection of fire protection strategies which can reduce the risk to an acceptable level according to the stipulated goals and objectives. Fire protection strategies may include the installation of a variety of approaches, such as passive and active fire protection systems, manual intervention and siting. Passive systems include fire rated barriers and protection of openings in those barriers, while active systems include systems such as fire detectors and sprinklers. Manual intervention may include the manual activation of fixed fire protection systems or firefighting activities by facility fire brigades or municipal fire departments. The manual firefighting activities are typically considered to be in the ‘response’ phase.

Appraisal of Passive and Active Fire Protection Systems in Student’s Accommodation

Fire protection systems are very important systems that must be included in buildings. They have a great significance in reducing or preventing the occurrences of fire. This paper presents an assessment of fire protection systems in student’s accommodation. Student accommodation is a particular type of building that provides shelter for students at University. In addition, it is also supposed to be an attractive environment, conducive to learning, and importantly, safe for occupation. The fire safety of occupants in a building, must be in accordance with the requirements of the building’s code. Therefore, the design of the building must comply with the Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984 of Malaysia, and provide all of the required safety features. This paper describes the findings from investigations of passive and active fire protection systems installed in buildings, based on fire safety requirements, UBBL (1984).

Appraisal of Fire Safety Management Systems at Educational Buildings

Educational buildings are one type of government asset that should be protected, and they play an important role as temporary communal meeting places for children, teachers and communities. In terms of management, schools need to emphasize fire safety for their buildings. It is well known that fires are not only a threat to the building’s occupants, but also to the property and the school environment. A study on fire safety management has been carried out on schools that have recently experienced fires in Penang. From the study, it was found that the school buildings require further enhancement in terms of both active and passive fire protection systems. For instance, adequate fire extinguishers should be provided to the school and the management should inspect and maintain fire protection devices regularly. The most effective methods to increase the level of awareness on fire safety are by organizing related programs on the management of fire safety involving all staff, teachers and students, educational talks on the dangers of fire and important actions to take in the event of an emergency, and, lastly, to appoint particular staff to join the management safety team in schools.

외장재에 의한 동시다발적인 화재의 피난위험성에 관한 연구

외장재의 수직화재에 의한 동시다발적인 화재 발생 시 피난위험성을 확인하기 위하여 시나리오에 의한 피난시뮬레이션을 수행하였다. 피난시뮬레이션 결과, 가연성 외장재가 연소하면서 수직화재로 확대되어 개구부를 통해 유입되는 화재에 의해 층 대부분이 550초에서 650초 사이에 허용피난안전시간에 도달하였고, 특히 1층은 358초에, 6층과 10층은 490초와 473초에 피난한계에 도달하였다. 또한, 1층과 26층, 28층~30층의 총 5개 층에서 피난위험성이 나타나는 것으로 분석되었다. 동시다발적인 화재성상으로 인해 모든 재실자가 전관 피난을 하여 15층 이상의 고층 부분에서 병목현상이 심하게 발생하여 피난계단으로 진입이 어렵다는 것을 확인하였다. 특히, 1층의 경우는 발화지점과 가까워서 358초에 허용안전피난시간에 도달하여 상부층에 있는 699명의 피난이 난해한 것으로 분석되었다. 외장재 화재의 위험성 대책으로 불연성 외장재의 사용과 연소 확대를 방지하기 위한 적극적인 진압방법의 도입이 요구된다. In order to study on the evacuation risk when connate fires caused by vertical fire spread of the exterior occurs, the egress simulations based on the relevant scenarios has carried out. As a result of it, ASET (permitted evacuation time) was reached in between 550 to 650 seconds in entire floors after vertical smoke spread from fire of combustible exteriors. In particular, ASET was 358 seconds in the first floor, 490 seconds in the six floor and 473 seconds in the tenth floor. In addition, five floors of all levels, the 1st floor, the 6th floor and the 28th floor ~30th floor, show RSET (minimum evacuation time) which is bigger than ASET as evacuation risk. This result presents occupants in high rise buildings with more than 15 floors might not be able to egress of them using staircases due to huge population attempting to evacuate simultaneously. Particularly, 699 people in the upper levels by smoke from the first floor are having difficulty escaping this building since ASET on the first floor adjacent to the ignition point was 358 seconds which is relatively reached fast. Considering a prevention method of the fire and smoke spread, architects have to use non-combustible exterior in the building's facade to be required as an active fire protection system.

Fixed Fire Protection Systems in Tunnels: Issues and Directions

Fire protection practices for highway tunnels have been undergoing significant changes in the last decade, largely in response to a number of catastrophic fires that caused tunnel authorities to thoroughly review their fire safety assumptions. One of the fire safety issues currently receiving much attention includes the installation of “active” fire protection systems in addition to the “passive” fire protection features that were until recently considered to be sufficient to mitigate fire risk in tunnels. Passive fire protection measures include the use of fire resistive construction materials which help protect the critical structural elements from damage due to high temperatures. Active fire protection systems include fixed piping systems to deliver water sprays, such as deluge sprinklers and water mist, or other water-based agents such as compressed air or high expansion foam (CAF or Hi-Ex respectively). Active fire protection systems for tunnels are currently referred to as water based fixed fire fighting systems, or FFFS for short. Fire research suggests that measures based solely on passive protection are not likely to be sufficient to protect life and property to the degree warranted by the high monetary and strategic value of modern tunnel infrastructure. Full-scale fire testing and engineering analysis indicate that FFFS have the potential to reduce the impact of a severe fire on the tunnel structure from catastrophic to manageable at an affordable cost. Fire testing with CAF and Hi-Ex foam systems has shown them capable of actually extinguishing very large fires, including hydrocarbon pool fires. Systems based on water sprays on the other hand are not expected to extinguish fires, but rather to control the fire, limit fire growth and heat release rate, prevent fire propagation and provide thermal management. Although there are a few years of experience internationally that have proven sprinkler and deluge sprinkler system to be effective in mitigating tunnel fires, recent testing of FFFS in Europe has concentrated on water mist. One reason is the perception that water mist systems may involve less complex piping and agent storage than CAF or Hi-Ex foam, and may provide equivalent or superior performance with less water and smaller pipes than conventional sprinkler deluge systems. However, many engineering challenges remain to be resolved, such as how much credit to grant to the FFFS in terms of reduced criteria for passive protection, and how exactly to integrate active protection systems with traditional fire safety measures such as the ventilation systems. This article examines some recent developments in understanding how active fire-fighting systems might alter the impact of fires in tunnels.

Capacity reduction and fire load factors for LRFD of steel columns exposed to fire

Capacity reduction and fire load factors corresponding to the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) format are developed for steel columns exposed to fire. A sample deterministic framework to determine fire and steel temperatures and the capacity of steel columns is adopted for this analysis to structure the methodology. A specific number of parameters that affect the structural response, including the fire load, ratio of floor area to the total area of the fire compartment, opening factor, thermal absorptivity of compartment boundaries, thickness, density and thermal conductivity of insulation, dead load, and live load are taken as random variables. Mechanical and sectional properties of steel (e.g., yield strength, cross-sectional area, etc.), are also considered to be random variables. The effect of active fire protection systems (e.g., sprinklers, smoke and heat detectors, fire brigade, etc.), in reducing the probability of occurrence of a severe fire is included. Given the choice of framework and based on detailed reliability analyses, it is shown that the capacity reduction and fire load factors should vary depending on the presence of active fire protection systems in a building.

Fire Performance of Water-Cooled GFRP Columns. I: Fire Endurance Investigation

Structural fire endurance experiments were conducted on full-scale cellular glass fiber-reinforced (GFRP) columns under axial compression and subjected to ISO834 fire exposure from one side. Unprotected columns can resist fire for more than 30 min, which is sufficient for occupants to be evacuated from smaller buildings. The closed cellular cross-section prevented the rapid heating of the webs, which could therefore continue stabilizing the face sheet on the cold side against buckling. Water cooling was proven to offer an effective active fire-protection system. The structural function of the column could be maintained for two hours. Previously developed models were capable of accurately predicting the time-dependent temperature responses, modulus degradation, and time to failure.

Capacity Reduction and Fire Load Factors for Design of Steel Members Exposed to Fire

A general reliability-based methodology is proposed for developing capacity reduction and fire load factors for design of steel members exposed to fire. The effect of active fire protection systems (e.g., sprinklers, smoke and heat detectors, fire brigade, etc.) in reducing the probability of occurrence of a severe fire is included. The design parameters that significantly affect the fire design of steel members are chosen as random variables. Raw experimental data published in the literature was analyzed to obtain the statistics of parameters for which no statistical information was available in the literature. Model errors associated with the thermal analysis models are also characterized based on experimental data. It is found that uncertainty associated with the fire design parameters is significantly higher than that of room temperature design parameters. To illustrate the proposed methodology, capacity reduction and fire load factors are developed for simply supported steel beams in U.S. office buildings, and it is shown that for consistent reliability these factors should vary depending on the presence of active fire protection systems in a building.

Pultruded GFRP tubes with liquid-cooling system under combined temperature and compressive loading

An active fire protection system, liquid-cooling, was applied to pultruded GFRP tubes subjected to combined thermal and mechanical loading in order to maintain material temperature below the critical glass transition temperature. The use of an appropriate flow rate enabled endurance times of up to 3 h at full serviceability loads to be achieved, even in the most severe scenario of compressive loading. Building code requirements concerning fire exposure - normally for a fire endurance of up to 2 h - can therefore be met. The experimental results evidenced not only the temperature - but also the time-dependence of the load-bearing capacity. Previously proposed thermal response and strength degradation models were further validated by the experiments. Since the applied models were derived from kinetic theory, the experimentally observed time-dependence could be well described. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ON RELATION BETWEEN ATTRIBUTES OF RESIDENTS AND HOUSES AND FIRE DEATH RISK IN RESIDENTIAL FIRES

The reduction of residential fire deaths is achieved not only by popularization of fire protection equipment such as smoke detectors and/or residential sprinklers, but also by many other efforts such as improvement in fire safety of appliances and popularization of fire-resistive construction in homes. The authors believe that preventing fire ignitions and mitigating fire damage through passive fire protection measures are both effective and fundamental approaches to reduce future fire deaths in addition to active fire protection systems. Therefore, we are working toward examining the availability of various measures that would reduce residential fire fatalities in high-risk groups. For this purpose, two main kinds of data sources were used in the analysis to see the relation between attributes of residents and houses and fire death risk in residential fires. One is the national database of fire incident and fire fatality reports collected by the Fire and Disaster Management Agency. The other source is the housing survey database with data such as age of residents, type of household, type of house and structure, and so forth. As a result, we found housing conditions such as type of house and structure are significantly relating to the fire deaths risk in residential fires together with the attributes of victims such as physical capability and/or age.

Review of post-earthquake fire hazard to building structures

Fire following an earthquake is an important factor causing damage to buildings and life-line structures. Therefore, besides satisfying structural design requirements for normal loads, such as dead and live loads including the seismic hazard, buildings should also be designed to withstand the fire following earthquakes for a certain minimum duration as required for a desired level of performance. This period of time will allow occupants to evacuate the building safely and the emergency crews to cope with the fire. Also, it is essential to reduce the post-earthquake fire (PEF) ignitions and minimize the damage to active fire protection systems as much as possible to prevent the spread of fire. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on the PEF hazard and discusses the causes, mitigation measures, and performance of building structures under this hazard. Mitigation measures that could be developed based on the experience from the structural engineering field are identified. Both local and global approaches that should be taken to mitigate the PEF hazard, including structural and nonstructural design, various urban planning aspects, and their interactive combinations, are discussed. Based on the review, it is concluded that that there is a strong need for the development of guidelines for structural fire safety design for PEF scenarios. In addition, appropriate analysis and numerical simulation techniques for the evaluation of the structural performance under earthquake-induced fire conditions need to be developed. It is also necessary to conduct experimental studies to validate such numerical models and refine them.

The International FORUM of Fire Research Directors: A position paper on performance-based design for fire code applications

The International FORUM of Fire Research Directors (FORUM) periodically takes a position on a technical issue of international significance confronting the fire safety research community. The position of the FORUM on performance-based regulations, codes and design for fire safety applications, and the rationale leading to it, is described in this paper. Aspects addressed include current capabilities and challenges associated with the application of performance-based design, and possible enhancements (obtained through a coordinated and sustained global effort of research) in next generation tools leading to more certain predictions of the effects on performance of changes in building materials, active and passive fire protection systems, compartmentation, and egress systems; the structural response of a building to large fires including those leading to full building burnout; the impact of fire on neighboring buildings and infrastructure; and the uncertainty in deterministic predictions for incorporation into reliable probabilistic calculations of hazard and risk.

Proposed fire safety strategy on airport terminals

Fire safety strategy for airport terminals will be proposed in this paper. The local airport terminal is taken as an example. Special features of airport terminals will be outlined. The retail areas are identified as places with higher fire risk. Standards, codes and design guidelines used overseas are reviewed and compared with the local codes. Based on the study, fire safety strategy is suggested to have four parts: • passive building construction for fire safety • active fire protection systems or fire services installation • fire safety management • control of risk factors. All four parts will be discussed in this paper. Suggestions are made to give a fire safe airport terminal.

A Preliminary Discussion on Selecting Active Fire Protection Systems for Atria in Green or Sustainable Buildings

Sprinkler systems are a common fire protection strategy used in shopping malls, whether there is an atrium or not. Because of the typically high headroom in an atrium, it is often difficult to activate a sprinkler due to a fire at the floor level. Further, flooding the atrium floor with excessive water from a sprinkler can affect evacuation and can cause serious property damage. Sprinkler systems do not satisfy the water conservation criterion for green or sustainable buildings. Alternative systems using less water should be designed for a ‘green or sustainable’ shopping mall with an atrium. The alternative active fire protection systems proposed in this paper are: • Water gun in atrium spaces; • Intelligent fire detection systems in atria; • Water mist fire suppression systems in shops adjacent to an atrium. An atrium in a ‘green or sustainable’ shopping mall is taken as an example. The feasibility of using the above fire protection systems is discussed. The potential advantage of less water use for green or sustainable buildings will be pointed out. Further, designing static smoke exhaust with roof vents for protecting the atrium with minimum use of electric power will be outlined, bearing in mind that a smoke management system is also regarded as an active fire protection system in some countries.

Legislation aspects of fire safety management in Hong Kong

Proper implementation of fire safety management is a key to providing total fire safety. In this paper, a regulatory framework related to fire safety management in buildings in Hong Kong has been reviewed. Current statutory requirements covering both administrative and technical aspects of fire safety management elements are outlined. Responsibilities of different management parties in a typical multiple occupancies commercial building on operating the fire safety measures are discussed. It is observed that only maintenance of active fire protection systems are emphasised at the moment. A more detailed fire safety plan should be formulated with clear legal liability for undertaking management responsibilities.

On the Fire Protection of a Commercial Kitchen Using Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems

The feasibility of using water mist fire suppression systems (WMFSS) in a commercial kitchen was discussed in this paper. Active fire protection systems (or called fire services installation in Hong Kong) required for kitchens were outlined. Advantages and disadvantages of WMFSS were discussed. Recommendations were made on the potential application strategies. An example was used to illustrate the design of the system.

Proposed Fire Safety Ranking System EB-FSRS for Existing High-Rise Nonresidential Buildings in Hong Kong

A Fire Safety Ranking System (EB-FSRS) is proposed for assessing the fire safety provisions in existing high-rise nonresidential buildings in Hong Kong. The objective is to investigate how far the fire safety provisions in those existing buildings deviate from the expectation of new codes. Suitable fire safety management can then be worked out in the transition period, based on the scores. Local fire codes were reviewed first to decide what should be the attributes and their weightings. From the reviewing results, three groups of attributes were proposed in the EB-FSRS. These are the passive building construction, active fire protection systems (fire services installation), and key risk parameters, all following the local fire safety requirements. The concept is similar to those equivalent concepts on fire safety parameters of the National Fire Protection Association–Fire Safety Evaluation System (NFPA-FSES). But the EB-FSRS is not a “trade-off” exercise. Thirty-seven old high-rise buildings were rated by...

A proposed fire safety ranking system for karaoke establishments and its comparison with the NFPA-fire safety evaluation system

A fire safety ranking system (FSRS), excluding the fire safety management at the moment, is proposed for assessing the fire safety provisions for existing karaoke establishments in Hong Kong. The objective is to investigate how far existing karaokes deviate from the expectation of new codes. Suitable fire safety management can then be worked out based on the scores. There are three attributes in the FSRS grouped as the key parameters for local fire safety requirements, passive building design and active fire protection systems. From the results of a survey carried out in May 2000, fire safety of 19 karaokes is rated by studying their architectural features and interior details. The results are compared with those by the National Fire Protection Association-Fire Safety Evaluation System (NFPA-FSES) on the part on fire safety parameters. Apart from dealing with fire spreading for interior finish, the proposed FSRS and NFPA-FSES are similar. The study of 19 of the existing karaoke establishments shows that the assessed level of fire safety is similar to the result of an assessment using the modified American system of evaluation.

A Fire Safety Ranking System for Karaoke Establishments in Hong Kong

A 20-point fire safety ranking system is proposed for assessing the fire safety provisions for existing karaoke establishments in Hong Kong. The deviations of the existing karaoke establishments from the new codes are investigated. Attributes are grouped into four areas as the key parameters for local fire safety requirements, passive building design, active fire protection systems and fire safety management. From the results of two surveys carried out in May 1998 and December 1999, fire safety levels of 45 karaokes are rated. It is observed that the scores are relatively low, and fire safety provisions must be enhanced. A long-term plan is to carry out in-depth studies on karaoke fires. An immediate action is to improve the fire safety management which should play an important role in keeping a karaoke safe.

Parametric Study Of The Nrcc Fire Risk-cost Assessment Model For Apartment And Office Buildings

This paper describes a model developed for the evaluation of risks and costs from fires in office and apartment buildings. It uses both deterministic and stochastic techniques to evaluate the consequence of all possible fire scenarios that may occur in a building. The probability of each scenario occurring and the consequence of that scenario are combined, resulting in two performance parameters: the expected risk to life (ERL) and the fire cost expectation. In this paper, a brief description of the system model and the methodology used is given, as well as the results of a study showing the sensitivity of the expected risk to life to various input parameters for a three storey apartment building. The results show that fire resistance, when there are no sprinklers present, has a great impact on lowering the expected risk-to-life. When there are sprinklers present, however, its impact is insignificant. The results show that the installation of sprinkler systems is important; the ERL values are much lower for designs with sprinklers than those without sprinklers. In general, for this building, the presence of active fire protection systems is important, however, the variation of the reliability of these systems, within a reasonable range, is not critical.