Activation Of SK Channels Research Articles

Partial bladder outlet obstruction is associated with decreased expression and function of the small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel in guinea pig detrusor smooth muscle.

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (PBOO) usually induces overactive bladder (OAB) associated with detrusor overactivity (DO) which is related to the increased contractility of detrusor smooth muscle (DSM). The pharmacological activation of small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels dramatically attenuates DSM contractility. However, the role of SK channels in the PBOO DSM is less clear. Here, we tested the hypothesis that PBOO is associated with decreased expression and function of SK channels in DSM and that the activation of SK channels is a potential target to regulate DO. Two weeks after surgically inducing PBOO in female guinea pigs, cystometry indicated that DO was achieved. Using this animal model, we conducted quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and isometric tension recordings. The qRT-PCR experiments indicated that PBOO DSM had reduced SK channel mRNA expression. Isometric tension recordings showed a decreased inhibitory effect of NS309 on spontaneous phasic and electrical field stimulation-induced contractions via the activation of SK channels in PBOO DSM. This study presents the novel finding that PBOO is associated with attenuated DSM SK channel expression and function, which results in increased DSM contractility and contributes to DO. Therefore, SK channels could be a therapeutic target to control OAB.

Hypocretin/Orexin Peptides Alter Spike Encoding by Serotonergic Dorsal Raphe Neurons through Two Distinct Mechanisms That Increase the Late Afterhyperpolarization

Orexins (hypocretins) are neuropeptides that regulate multiple homeostatic processes, including reward and arousal, in part by exciting serotonergic dorsal raphe neurons, the major source of forebrain serotonin. Here, using mouse brain slices, we found that, instead of simply depolarizing these neurons, orexin-A altered the spike encoding process by increasing the postspike afterhyperpolarization (AHP) via two distinct mechanisms. This orexin-enhanced AHP (oeAHP) was mediated by both OX1 and OX2 receptors, required Ca(2+) influx, reversed near EK, and decayed with two components, the faster of which resulted from enhanced SK channel activation, whereas the slower component decayed like a slow AHP (sAHP), but was not blocked by UCL2077, an antagonist of sAHPs in some neurons. Intracellular phospholipase C inhibition (U73122) blocked the entire oeAHP, but neither component was sensitive to PKC inhibition or altered PKA signaling, unlike classical sAHPs. The enhanced SK current did not depend on IP3-mediated Ca(2+) release but resulted from A-current inhibition and the resultant spike broadening, which increased Ca(2+) influx and Ca(2+)-induced-Ca(2+) release, whereas the slower component was insensitive to these factors. Functionally, the oeAHP slowed and stabilized orexin-induced firing compared with firing produced by a virtual orexin conductance lacking the oeAHP. The oeAHP also reduced steady-state firing rate and firing fidelity in response to stimulation, without affecting the initial rate or fidelity. Collectively, these findings reveal a new orexin action in serotonergic raphe neurons and suggest that, when orexin is released during arousal and reward, it enhances the spike encoding of phasic over tonic inputs, such as those related to sensory, motor, and reward events. Orexin peptides are known to excite neurons via slow postsynaptic depolarizations. Here we elucidate a significant new orexin action that increases and prolongs the postspike afterhyperpolarization (AHP) in 5-HT dorsal raphe neurons and other arousal-system neurons. Our mechanistic studies establish involvement of two distinct Ca(2+)-dependent AHP currents dependent on phospholipase C signaling but independent of IP3 or PKC. Our functional studies establish that this action preserves responsiveness to phasic inputs while attenuating responsiveness to tonic inputs. Thus, our findings bring new insight into the actions of an important neuropeptide and indicate that, in addition to producing excitation, orexins can tune postsynaptic excitability to better encode the phasic sensory, motor, and reward signals expected during aroused states.

Dynamic DNA methylation regulates neuronal intrinsic membrane excitability.

Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA cytosine methylation, contribute to the mechanisms underlying learning and memory by coordinating adaptive gene expression and neuronal plasticity. Transcription-dependent plasticity regulated by DNA methylation includes synaptic plasticity and homeostatic synaptic scaling. Memory-related plasticity also includes alterations in intrinsic membrane excitability mediated by changes in the abundance or activity of ion channels in the plasma membrane, which sets the threshold for action potential generation. We found that prolonged inhibition of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) activity increased intrinsic membrane excitability of cultured cortical pyramidal neurons. Knockdown of the cytosine demethylase TET1 or inhibition of RNA polymerase blocked the increased membrane excitability caused by DNMT inhibition, suggesting that this effect was mediated by subsequent cytosine demethylation and de novo transcription. Prolonged DNMT inhibition blunted the medium component of the after-hyperpolarization potential, an effect that would increase neuronal excitability, and was associated with reduced expression of the genes encoding small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (SK) channels. Furthermore, the specific SK channel blocker apamin increased neuronal excitability but was ineffective after DNMT inhibition. Our results suggested that DNMT inhibition enables transcriptional changes that culminate in decreased expression of SK channel-encoding genes and decreased activity of SK channels, thus providing a mechanism for the regulation of neuronal intrinsic membrane excitability by dynamic DNA cytosine methylation. This study has implications for human neurological and psychiatric diseases associated with dysregulated intrinsic excitability.

Small-Conductance Ca2+-Activated Potassium Channels Negatively Regulate Aldosterone Secretion in Human Adrenocortical Cells.

Aldosterone, which plays a key role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance, is produced by zona glomerulosa cells of the adrenal cortex. Autonomous overproduction of aldosterone from zona glomerulosa cells causes primary hyperaldosteronism. Recent clinical studies have highlighted the pathological role of the KCNJ5 potassium channel in primary hyperaldosteronism. Our objective was to determine whether small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium (SK) channels may also regulate aldosterone secretion in human adrenocortical cells. We found that apamin, the prototypic inhibitor of SK channels, decreased membrane voltage, raised intracellular Ca(2+) and dose dependently increased aldosterone secretion from human adrenocortical H295R cells. By contrast, 1-Ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone, an agonist of SK channels, antagonized apamin's action and decreased aldosterone secretion. Commensurate with an increase in aldosterone production, apamin increased mRNA expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and aldosterone synthase that control the early and late rate-limiting steps in aldosterone biosynthesis, respectively. In addition, apamin increased angiotensin II-stimulated aldosterone secretion, whereas 1-Ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone suppressed both angiotensin II- and high K(+)-stimulated production of aldosterone in H295R cells. These findings were supported by apamin-modulation of basal and angiotensin II-stimulated aldosterone secretion from acutely prepared slices of human adrenals. We conclude that SK channel activity negatively regulates aldosterone secretion in human adrenocortical cells. Genetic association studies are necessary to determine whether mutations in SK channel subtype 2 genes may also drive aldosterone excess in primary hyperaldosteronism.

Interactions between calcium channels and SK channels in midbrain dopamine neurons and their impact on pacemaker regularity: Contrasting roles of N- and L-type channels

Although small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels and various types of voltage-gated Ca2+ (Cav) channels have been described in midbrain dopaminergic neurons, the nature of their interactions is unclear. More particularly, the role of various Cav channel types in either promoting irregularity of firing (by generating an inward current during SK channel blockade) or promoting regularity of firing (by providing the source of Ca2+ for the activation of SK channels) has not been systematically explored. We addressed this question using intracellular and extracellular recordings from substantia nigra, pars compacta (SNc), dopaminergic neurons in rat midbrain slices. Neurons were pharmacologically isolated from their differences. When examining the ability of various Cav channel blockers to inhibit the SK-mediated afterhyperpolarization (AHP), we found that only the N-type Cav channel blocker ω-conotoxin-GVIA was able to reduce the apamin-sensitive AHP, but only partially (~40%). Specific blockers of L, P/Q, T or R channels had no effect on this AHP. Combining ω-conotoxin-GVIA and other specific blockers did not yield greater block and even the broad Cav blocker Cd2+ induced a submaximal (~75%) effect. Extracellular recordings examining firing regularity yielded congruent results: none of the specific blockers was able to increase firing irregularity to the extent that the specific SK blocker apamin did. The irregularity of firing observed with apamin could only be reversed by blocking L-type Ca2+ channels. Thus various sources of Ca2+ appear to be required for SK channel activation in SNc neurons (some of them still unidentified), ensuring robustness of pacemaking regularity.

New Disaccharide-Based Ether Lipids as SK3 Ion Channel Inhibitors.

The SK3 potassium channel is involved in the development of bone metastasis and in the settlement of cancer cells in Ca(2+) -rich environments. Ohmline, which is a lactose-based glycero-ether lipid, is a lead compound that decreases SK3 channel activity and consequently limits the migration of SK3-expressing cells. Herein we report the synthesis of three new ohmline analogues in which the connection of the disaccharide moieties (1→6 versus 1→4) and the stereochemistry of the glycosyl linkage was studied. Compound 2 [3-(hexadecyloxy)-2-methoxypropyl-6-O-α-d-glucopyranosyl-β-d-galactopyranoside], which possesses an α-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-galactopyranosyl moiety, was found to decrease SK3 current amplitude (70 % inhibition at 10 μm), displace SK3 protein outside caveolae, and decrease constitutive Ca(2+) entry (50 % inhibition at 300 nm) and SK3-dependent cell migration (30 % at 300 nm) at a level close to that of the benchmark compound ohmline. Compound 2, which decreases the activity of SK3 channel (but not SK2 channel), is a new drug candidate to reduce cancer cell migration and to prevent bone metastasis.

Control of Ca2+ Influx and Calmodulin Activation by SK-Channels in Dendritic Spines.

The key trigger for Hebbian synaptic plasticity is influx of Ca2+ into postsynaptic dendritic spines. The magnitude of [Ca2+] increase caused by NMDA-receptor (NMDAR) and voltage-gated Ca2+ -channel (VGCC) activation is thought to determine both the amplitude and direction of synaptic plasticity by differential activation of Ca2+ -sensitive enzymes such as calmodulin. Ca2+ influx is negatively regulated by Ca2+ -activated K+ channels (SK-channels) which are in turn inhibited by neuromodulators such as acetylcholine. However, the precise mechanisms by which SK-channels control the induction of synaptic plasticity remain unclear. Using a 3-dimensional model of Ca2+ and calmodulin dynamics within an idealised, but biophysically-plausible, dendritic spine, we show that SK-channels regulate calmodulin activation specifically during neuron-firing patterns associated with induction of spike timing-dependent plasticity. SK-channel activation and the subsequent reduction in Ca2+ influx through NMDARs and L-type VGCCs results in an order of magnitude decrease in calmodulin (CaM) activation, providing a mechanism for the effective gating of synaptic plasticity induction. This provides a common mechanism for the regulation of synaptic plasticity by neuromodulators.

Arrhythmogenic calmodulin mutations impede activation of small-conductance calcium-activated potassium current

Apamin-sensitive small-conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels are gated by intracellular Ca(2+) through a constitutive interaction with calmodulin. We hypothesize that arrhythmogenic human calmodulin mutations impede activation of SK channels. We studied 5 previously published calmodulin mutations (N54I, N98S, D96V, D130G, and F90L). Plasmids encoding either wild-type or mutant calmodulin were transiently transfected into human embryonic kidney 293 cells that stably express subtype 2 of SK protein channels (SK2 cells). Whole-cell voltage-clamp recording was used to determine apamin-sensitive current densities. We also performed optical mapping studies in normal murine hearts to determine the effects of apamin in hearts with (n=7) or without (n=3) pretreatment with sea anemone toxin. SK2 cells transfected with wild-type calmodulin exhibited an apamin-sensitive current density of 33.6 pA/pF (31.4-36.5 pA/pF) (median and confidence interval 25th-75th percentile), which was significantly higher than that observed for cells transfected with N54I (17.0 pA/pF [14.0-27.7 pA/pF]; P = .016), F90L (22.6 pA/pF [20.3-24.3 pA/pF]; P = .011), D96V (13.0 pA/pF [10.9-15.8 pA/pF]; P = .003), N98S (13.7 pA/pF [8.8-20.4 pA/pF]; P = .005), and D130G (17.6 pA/pF [13.8-24.6 pA/pF]; P = .003). The decrease in SK2 current densities was not associated with a decrease in membrane protein expression or intracellular distribution of the channel protein. Apamin increased the ventricular action potential duration at 80% repolarization (from 79.6 ms [63.4-93.3 ms] to 121.8 ms [97.9-127.2 ms]; P = .010) in hearts pretreated with anemone toxin but not in control hearts. Human arrhythmogenic calmodulin mutations impede the activation of SK2 channels in human embryonic kidney 293 cells.

PS-04-015 Effects of openers of small and intermediate calcium-activated K channels on cardiac rhythm and erectile function in rats

Examine the effect of NS309 and NS4591 openers of KCa2.3 (SK) and KCa3.1 (IK) channels, on cardiac rhythm and blood pressure as well as erectile function. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), intracavernosal pressure (ICP) and electrocardiography were measured in anesthetized rats, corpus cavernosum strips were mounted for isometric tension recording and processed for immunoblotting. Erectile function measured as (ICP/MAP) was increased during administration of NS309 and NS4591, while increases in ICP by stimulation of the cavernous nerve were unchanged. Heart sinus node and atrial ventricle conduction changed with an increment in depolarization and conduction, ventricle depolarization increase in association with the heart rate (QTc). Corpus cavernosum relaxation improved upon NS309 and NS4591 administration, and involved activation of SK and large conductance potassium channels (BK). Immunoblotting revealed the presence of SK channels in the corpus cavernosum. Our findings suggest that NS309 and NS4591 improve erectile function during infusion and may restore erectile function in disease. However, the effect on cardiac rhythm needs to be taken into account in the development of drugs of this class with longer duration of action.

SK3/TRPC1/Orai1 complex regulates SOCE-dependent colon cancer cell migration: a novel opportunity to modulate anti-EGFR mAb action by the alkyl-lipid Ohmline.

BackgroundBarely 10-20% of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) receive a clinical benefit from the use of anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). We hypothesized that this could depends on their efficiency to reduce Store Operated Calcium Entry (SOCE) that are known to enhance cancer cells.ResultsIn the present study, we demonstrate that SOCE promotes migration of colon cancer cell following the formation of a lipid raft ion channel complex composed of TRPC1/Orai1 and SK3 channels. Formation of this complex is stimulated by the phosphorylation of the reticular protein STIM1 by EGF and activation of the Akt pathway. Our data show that, in a positive feedback loop SOCE activates both Akt pathway and SK3 channel activity which lead to SOCE amplification. This amplification occurs through the activation of Rac1/Calpain mediated by Akt. We also show that Anti-EGFR mAbs can modulate SOCE and cancer cell migration through the Akt pathway. Interestingly, the alkyl-lipid Ohmline, which we previously showed to be an inhibitor of SK3 channel, can dissociated the lipid raft ion channel complex through decreased phosphorylation of Akt and modulation of mAbs action.ConclusionsThis study demonstrates that the inhibition of the SOCE-dependent colon cancer cell migration trough SK3/TRPC1/Orai1 channel complex by the alkyl-lipid Ohmline may be a novel strategy to modulate Anti-EGFR mAb action in mCRC.

P2Y receptor-mediated transient relaxation of rat longitudinal ileum preparations involves phospholipase C activation, intracellular Ca(2+) release and SK channel activation.

Purinergic signaling plays a major role in the enteric nervous system, where it governs gut motility through a number of P2X and P2Y receptors. The aim of this study was to investigate the P2Y receptor-mediated motility in rat longitudinal ileum preparations. Ileum smooth muscle strips were prepared from rats, and fixed in an organ bath. Isometric contraction and relaxation responses of the muscle strips were measured with force transducers. Drugs were applied by adding of stock solutions to the organ bath to yield the individual final concentrations. Application of the non-hydrolyzable P2 receptor agonists α,β-Me-ATP or 2-Me-S-ADP (10, 100 μmol/L) dose-dependently elicited a transient relaxation response followed by a sustained contraction. The relaxation response was largely blocked by SK channel blockers apamin (500 nmol/L) and UCL1684 (10 μmol/L), PLC inhibitor U73122 (100 μmol/L), IP3 receptor blocker 2-APB (100 μmol/L) or sarcoendoplasmic Ca(2+) ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin (1 μmol/L), but not affected by atropine, NO synthase blocker L-NAME or tetrodotoxin. Furthermore, α,β-Me-ATP-induced relaxation was suppressed by P2Y1 receptor antagonist MRS2179 (50 μmol/L) or P2Y13 receptor antagonist MRS2211 (100 μmol/L), and was abolished by co-application of the two antagonists, whereas 2-Me-S-ADP-induced relaxation was abolished by P2Y6 receptor antagonist MRS2578 (50 μmol/L). In addition, P2Y1 receptor antagonist MRS2500 (1 μmol/L) not only abolished α,β-Me-ATP-induced relaxation, but also suppressed 2-Me-S-ADP-induced relaxation. P2Y receptor agonist-induced transient relaxation of rat ileum smooth muscle strips is mediated predominantly by P2Y1 receptor, but also by P2Y6 and P2Y13 receptors, and involves PLC, IP3, Ca(2+) release and SK channel activation, but is independent of acetylcholine and NO release.

LB-S&T-37 INTERACTION OF TRPV4 AND SK3 CHANNELS IN DETRUSOR PDGFR?+ CELLS CONTROLS BLADDER FILLING

You have accessJournal of UrologyLate-Breaking S&T Poster1 Apr 2016LB-S&T-37 INTERACTION OF TRPV4 AND SK3 CHANNELS IN DETRUSOR PDGFR?+ CELLS CONTROLS BLADDER FILLING Haeyeong Lee, Byoung Koh, Robert Corrigan, Lauren Peri, Brian Perrino, Toby Chai, Kenton Sanders, and Sang Don Koh Haeyeong LeeHaeyeong Lee More articles by this author , Byoung KohByoung Koh More articles by this author , Robert CorriganRobert Corrigan More articles by this author , Lauren PeriLauren Peri More articles by this author , Brian PerrinoBrian Perrino More articles by this author , Toby ChaiToby Chai More articles by this author , Kenton SandersKenton Sanders More articles by this author , and Sang Don KohSang Don Koh More articles by this author View All Author Informationhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2016.03.118AboutPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InEmail INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES Recently we reported the functional expression of SK channels in detrusor PDGFRa+ cells. This cell does not display voltage dependent Ca2+ channels. Finding the source of extracellular Ca2+ influx is critical for activation of SK channels. TRPV are relatively more Ca2+ permeable. In previous papers, TRPV4 KO mice demonstrated an increase in frequency of non voiding contractions (NVCs). The mechanism of this phenotype has not been studied. Thus, we hypothesized that TRPV4 channels are main source of Ca2+ influx to activate SK channels during filling. METHODS We applied molecular approaches, protein chemistry, patch clamp techniques, isometric force measurement, ex vivo cystometry, Ca2+ imaging techniques. PDGFRa/eGFP and C57BL/6 mice were used for cell sorting and patch clamp. Molecular expression of Trp channels and protein protein interaction between TRPV4 and SK3 channels were examined. Effects of TRPV4 agonist and antagonist were also examined on PDGFRa+ cells and smooth muscle cells (SMC) using patch clamp approaches. Detrusor contractility, ex vivo cystometry and Ca2+ imaging analysis were employed for functional analysis. RESULTS Quantitative analysis of transcripts demonstrated that Trpv4 is highly expressed in murine PDGFRa+ cells. In patch clamp experiments a TRPV4 channel agonist, GSK1016790A (GSK), activated TRPV4 current that was linked to activation of SK current. Under current clamp, GSK induced membrane hyperpolarization of detrusor PDGFRa+ cells. GSK activated SK currents were blocked by TRPV4 antagonists. Detrusor SMCs were unresponsive to GSK. In contractile experiments, GSK decreased phasic contractions in a dose dependent manner. TRPV4 antagonist increased phasic contractions. In ex vivo cystometry, GSK increased non-voiding contractions in the presence of apamin. In contrast TRPV4 antagonist increased NVCs, and NVCs were also elevated significantly in bladders of Trpv4 KO mice. Proximity ligation assays demonstrated protein protein interactions between TRPV4 and SK3 channels. GSK increased Ca2+ transients only in PDGFRa+ cells but not in SMC. CONCLUSIONS TRPV4 and SK channels are functionally interacted closely in plasma membrane of PDGFRa+ cells. Ca2+ influx through TRPV4 channels directly activates SK channels. Since TRPV4 are mechanosensitive channels, activation of TRPV4 during bladder filling stabilize membrane potentials and prevent detrusor overactivity. © 2016FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Volume 195Issue 4SApril 2016Page: e352 Advertisement Copyright & Permissions© 2016MetricsAuthor Information Haeyeong Lee More articles by this author Byoung Koh More articles by this author Robert Corrigan More articles by this author Lauren Peri More articles by this author Brian Perrino More articles by this author Toby Chai More articles by this author Kenton Sanders More articles by this author Sang Don Koh More articles by this author Expand All Advertisement Advertisement PDF downloadLoading ...

Thalamic reticular impairment underlies attention deficit in Ptchd1(Y/-) mice.

Developmental disabilities, including attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), intellectual disability (ID), and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), affect 1 in 6 children in the United States. Recently, PTCHD1 (Patched-domain containing protein 1) gene mutations have been found in ~1% of patients with ID and ASD. PTCHD1 deletion patients show symptoms of ADHD, sleep disruption, hypotonia, aggression, ASD, and ID. Although PTCHD1 is likely critical for normal development, the connection between its deletion and the ensuing behavioral defects is poorly understood. Here, we report that during early postnatal development, mouse Ptchd1 is selectively expressed in the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN), a group of GABAergic neurons that regulate thalamo-cortical transmission, sleep rhythms, and attention. Ptchd1 deletion attenuates TRN activity by reducing calcium-dependent potassium currents (SK). Restricted TRN deletion of Ptchd1 leads to attention deficits and hyperactivity, both of which are rescued by pharmacological augmentation of SK channels. Global Ptchd1 deletion recapitulates learning impairment, hyper-aggression, and motor defects, all of which are insensitive to SK pharmacological targeting and not found in the TRN-restricted deletion mouse. This study maps clinically-relevant behavioral phenotypes onto TRN dysfunction in a human disease model, while also identifying molecular and circuit targets for intervention.

Neuroscience: Untangling autism.

Disruption of the PTCHD1 gene in humans has been associated with attention deficits, intellectual disability, and autism spectrum disorders, but the brain areas involved are not known. Guoping Feng and colleagues report that Ptchd1 deletion in mice attenuated thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) activity by reducing calcium-dependent potassium currents (SK). Mice with TRN-restricted Ptchd1 deletion had fragmented sleep, attention deficits and hyperactivity, which could be rescued by an SK channel activator. By contrast, mice with global Ptchd1 deletion had learning impairments, hyper-aggression and motor defects, which were insensitive to the SK channel activator. These findings suggest that a TRN deficit may underlie several impairments associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, and identify possible therapeutic targets for individuals with PTCHD1 deletion.

Inward rectifier potassium (Kir2.1) channels as end-stage boosters of endothelium-dependent vasodilators.

Increase in endothelial cell (EC) calcium activates calcium-sensitive intermediate and small conductance potassium (IK and SK) channels, thereby causing hyperpolarization and endothelium-dependent vasodilatation. Endothelial cells express inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels, but their role in endothelium-dependent vasodilatation is not clear. In the mesenteric arteries, only ECs, but not smooth muscle cells, displayed Kir currents that were predominantly mediated by the Kir2.1 isoform. Endothelium-dependent vasodilatations in response to muscarinic receptor, TRPV4 (transient receptor potential vanilloid 4) channel and IK/SK channel agonists were highly attenuated by Kir channel inhibitors and by Kir2.1 channel knockdown. These results point to EC Kir channels as amplifiers of vasodilatation in response to increases in EC calcium and IK/SK channel activation and suggest that EC Kir channels could be targeted to treat endothelial dysfunction, which is a hallmark of vascular disorders. Endothelium-dependent vasodilators, such as acetylcholine, increase intracellular Ca(2+) through activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) channels in the plasma membrane and inositol trisphosphate receptors in the endoplasmic reticulum, leading to stimulation of Ca(2+) -sensitive intermediate and small conductance K(+) (IK and SK, respectively) channels. Although strong inward rectifier K(+) (Kir) channels have been reported in the native endothelial cells (ECs) their role in EC-dependent vasodilatation is not clear. Here, we test the idea that Kir channels boost the EC-dependent vasodilatation of resistance-sized arteries. We show that ECs, but not smooth muscle cells, of small mesenteric arteries have Kir currents, which are substantially reduced in EC-specific Kir2.1 knockdown (EC-Kir2.1(-/-) ) mice. Elevation of extracellular K(+) to 14mm caused vasodilatation of pressurized arteries, which was prevented by endothelial denudation and Kir channel inhibitors (Ba(2+) , ML-133) or in the arteries from EC-Kir2.1(-/-) mice. Potassium-induced dilatations were unaffected by inhibitors of TRPV4, IK and SK channels. The Kir channel blocker, Ba(2+) , did not affect currents through TRPV4, IK or SK channels. Endothelial cell-dependent vasodilatations in response to activation of muscarinic receptors, TRPV4 channels or IK/SK channels were reduced, but not eliminated, by Kir channel inhibitors or EC-Kir2.1(-/-) . In angiotensinII-induced hypertension, the Kir channel function was not altered, although the endothelium-dependent vasodilatation was severely impaired. Our results support the concept that EC Kir2 channels boost vasodilatory signals that are generated by Ca(2+) -dependent activation of IK and SK channels.

Endothelial SK3 channel-associated Ca2+ microdomains modulate blood pressure.

Activation of vascular endothelial small- (KCa2.3, SK3) or intermediate- (KCa3.1, IK1) conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium channels induces vasorelaxation via an endothelium-derived hyperpolarization (EDH) pathway. Although the activation of SK3 and IK1 channels converges on EDH, their subcellular effects on signal transduction are different and not completely clear. In this study, a novel endothelium-specific SK3 knockout (SK3(-/-)) mouse model was utilized to specifically examine the contribution of SK3 channels to mesenteric artery vasorelaxation, endothelial Ca(2+) dynamics, and blood pressure. The absence of SK3 expression was confirmed using real-time quantitative PCR and Western blot analysis. Functional studies showed impaired EDH-mediated vasorelaxation in SK3(-/-) small mesenteric arteries. Immunostaining results from SK3(-/-) vessels confirmed the absence of SK3 and further showed altered distribution of transient receptor potential channels, type 4 (TRPV4). Electrophysiological recordings showed a lack of SK3 channel activity, while TRPV4-IK1 channel coupling remained intact in SK3(-/-) endothelial cells. Moreover, Ca(2+) imaging studies in SK3(-/-) endothelium showed increased Ca(2+) transients with reduced amplitude and duration under basal conditions. Importantly, SK3(-/-) endothelium lacked a distinct type of Ca(2+) dynamic that is sensitive to TRPV4 activation. Blood pressure measurements showed that the SK3(-/-) mice were hypertensive, and the blood pressure increase was further enhanced during the 12-h dark cycle when animals are most active. Taken together, our results reveal a previously unappreciated SK3 signaling microdomain that modulates endothelial Ca(2+) dynamics, vascular tone, and blood pressure.

Apamin-Sensitive Small Conductance Calcium-Activated Potassium Channels were Negatively Regulated by Captopril in Volume-Overload Heart Failure Rats.

In heart failure (HF), the malignant arrhythmias occur frequently; a study demonstrated that upregulation of I KAS resulted in recurrent spontaneous ventricular fibrillation in HF. However, the regulation of SK channels was poorly understood. The activation of SK channels depended on [Ca(2+)]i and PP2A; studies suggested that angiotensin II can regulate them. So, we hypothesized that in HF, the excess of angiotensin may regulate the SK channels and result in the remodeling of SK channels. To test the hypothesis, we used volume-overload-induced HF rat model, treated with captopril, performed whole-cell patch clamp to record apamin-sensitive currents (I KAS), and I-V curve was studied. The sensitivity of I KAS to [Ca(2+)]i was also explored by setting various [Ca(2+)]i (10, 100, 500, 900, 1000, and 10,000nM), and the steady-state Ca(2+) response of I KAS was attained and performed Hill fitting with the equation (y=1/[1+(EC50/x) (n) ]). Immunofluorescent staining, real-time PCR, Western blot were also carried out to furtherly investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of the regulation. Captopril significantly decreased the mean density of I KAS when [Ca(2+)]i was 500, 900, 1000, and 10000nM. The Hill fitting showed significantly different EC50 values and the Hill coefficients and showed captopril significantly shifted rightward the steady-state Ca(2+) response of I KAS. The results of real-time PCR and Western blot demonstrated captopril decreased the mRNA and protein expression of SK3 channels. Captopril significantly downregulated the sensitivity of SK channels to [Ca(2+)]i and the SK3 channels expression in HF, and reversed the SK channels remodeling.

Spatial and Functional Interactions between SK Channels and L-Type Calcium Channels in Cardiomyocytes

Small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels are gated solely by intracellular Ca2+ and hence, provide a critical link between changes in intracellular Ca2+ and membrane potentials. The identification and functional expression of SK channels in the heart provided additional insights into the regulation of cardiac excitability. Indeed, the crosstalk between Ca2+ signaling and SK channels is critical for shaping cardiac repolarization. Our prior studies documented the physical coupling between SK channels and L-type Ca2+ channels (LTCCs). In addition, functional dependence of SK channel on sarcoplasmic reticulum has also been demonstrated. However, the spatial and functional interactions are less well understood. We hypothesize that LTCCs provide the immediate Ca2+ domain for the activation of cardiac SK channels. Using stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy, we gained super-resolution images of SK channels, LTCCs and ryanodine receptors (RyR2) in rabbit ventricular myocytes, revealing the spatial coupling of the three molecules. Moreover, we designed a voltage-clamp protocol to test the functional coupling between SK and LTCCs. EGTA or BAPTA were applied to identify the intracellular Ca2+ domains for SK channel activation. SK currents were activated by Ca2+ influx via LTCCs after depletion of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ store. BAPTA removed the functional coupling between SKs and LTCCs. In addition, alterations in SK channel activation kinetics were observed after SR Ca2+ depletion. We conclude that the spatial proximity among SK, LTCCs and RyR2 provides the structural basis for the functional complex formation for SK channel activation. Ca2+ influx through LTCCs provides Ca2+ microdomain for SK channel activation as well as a joint contribution from LTCCs and SR for SK channel activation in cardiomyocytes.Funded by NIH (R01 HL085727 and R01 HL085844 to NC), VA (I01 BX000576 to NC) and AHA (14BGIA18870087 to XZ).

Cardiac Small Conductance Calcium-Activated K Channels Maintain Repolarization Reserve in a Pharmacological Model of Type 3 Long QT Syndrome

Drug-induced long QT syndrome (diLQT) is a major public health problem. Whether small conductance calcium-activated K (SK) channels are involved in modulating cardiac repolarization reserve in diLQT is unclear. To examine their role in diLQT, we determined the effects of SK current inhibition on optically measured action potential duration at 80% repolarization (APD80) in isolated perfused, immobilized (10 microM ±-blebbistatin) mouse hearts, in which ventricular repolarization was prolonged by the late Na current (INa-L) activator ATX-II (15 nM). ATX-II at this concentration had no significant effect on the activity of cardiac SK channels expressed in HEK293 cells, but significantly (P 0.05). Vehicles for ATX-II and apamin did not significantly alter APD80 (n = 3; P>0.05). Identical results were obtained in isolated perfused rabbit hearts (n = 2), indicating that apamin effects on APD80 were not species-specific. In conclusion, these findings suggest that SK currents are acutely upregulated in a pharmacological model of type 3 LQT syndrome. Increased SK channel activity may serve as an endogenous rescue mechanism protecting normal and diseased ventricles from arrhythmias associated with reduced repolarization reserve. Apamin caused further prolongation of the APD80. Therefore, SK channel blockade removes this rescue mechanism, unmasking diLQT.

The small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel 3 (SK3) is a molecular target for Edelfosine to reduce the invasive potential of urothelial carcinoma cells.

Metastasis is the survival-determining factor in urothelial carcinoma (UC) of the urinary bladder. The small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel 3 (SK3) enhances tumor cell invasion in breast cancer and malignant melanoma. Since Edelfosine, a glycerophospholipid with antitumoral properties, effectively inhibits SK3 channel activity, our goal was to evaluate SK3 as a potential molecular target to inhibit the gain of an invasive phenotype in UC. SK3 protein expression was analyzed in 208 tissue samples and UC cell lines. Effects of Edelfosine on SK3 expression and intracellular calcium levels as well as on cell morphology, cell survival and proliferation were assessed using immunoblotting, potentiometric fluorescence microscopy, and clonogenic/cell survival assay; furthermore, we analyzed the effect of Edelfosine and SK3 RNAi knockdown on tumor cell migration and invasion in vitro and in vivo. We found that SK3 is strongly expressed in muscle-invasive UC and in the RT112 cellular tumor model. Higher concentrations of Edelfosine have a strong antitumoral effect on UC cells, while 1μM effectively inhibits migration/invasion of UC cells in vitro and in vivo comparable to the SK3 knockdown phenotype. Taken together, our results show strong expression of SK3 in muscle-invasive UC, consistent with the postulated role of the protein in tumor cell invasion. Edelfosine is able to effectively inhibit migration and invasion of UC cells in vitro and in vivo in an SK3-dependent way, pointing towards a possible role for Edelfosine as an antiinvasive drug to effectively inhibit UC cell invasion and metastasis.