Platelet-activating Factor Receptor Activation Research Articles

PAF receptor activation in hippocampal plasticity induced by SE

One of the defining characteristics of epilepsy is abberant mossy fiber sprouting (MFS) in the dentate gyrus. These axonal projections within the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus create a hyperexcitable network and lead to spontaneous seizures. Growth‐associated protein 43 (GAP‐43), a presynaptic marker that is expressed during development and axonal growth, has been preveiously implicated in the abnormal MFS found in epileptic models. The purpose of our study is to investigate the role of platelet activating factor (PAF) receptor‐mediated signaling in abnormal MFS by evaulating GAP‐43 immunoreactivity. PAF is a mediator of inflammation, a potent gene expression inducer and a modulator of long term potentiation (LTP), synaptic plasticity, and memory formation. PAF abnormally accumulates in the brain during seizures, or injuries, contributing to neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. Using the novel PAF receptor antagonist, LAU‐0901, in the rat pilocarpine model of epilepsy, we found a positive correlation between a decrease in spontenous seizure activity and an increase GAP‐43 immunoreacitivy in our treated group, suggesting that PAF receptor activation is involved in the abberant plasticity associated with epilepsy.Source of support: This work was supported by NIH/NCRR grant P20 RR016816.

The Role of Platelet‐activating Factor in the Mammalian Female Reproductive Tract

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent lipid mediator produced by various cell types of mammals and is involved in an inflammatory-like process with increased vascular permeability. Platelet-activating factor exerts its actions through the activation of specific PAF receptors (PAF-R) found in cells and tissues of the female reproductive tract. The aim of this article was summarized briefly in the current research on the role of PAF in female reproductive functions. Platelet-activating factor has been implicated in processes of ovulation, implantation and parturition because of its angiogenic and growth factor properties. This factor is influenced by ovarian steroid hormones in bringing about changes in the uterus and is a candidate molecule for initial embryo-maternal dialogue. Tissue concentrations of PAF are regulated by the equilibrium between biosynthesis and degradation by PAF-acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH). Antagonists of PAF interfere with ovulation and implantation. Platelet-activating factor, its receptor, and PAF-AH activity play an important role in the maintenance of pregnancy.

Activation of Platelet-Activating Factor Receptor and Pleiotropic Effects on Tyrosine Phospho-EGFR/Src/FAK/Paxillin in Ovarian Cancer

Among the proinflammatory mediators, platelet-activating factor (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine) is a major primary and secondary messenger involved in intracellular and extracellular communication. Evidence suggests that PAF plays a significant role in oncogenic transformation, tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis. However, PAF, with its receptor (PAFR) and their downstream signaling targets, has not been thoroughly studied in cancer. Here, we characterized the PAFR expression pattern in 4 normal human ovarian surface epithelial (HOSE) cell lines, 13 ovarian cancer cell lines, paraffin blocks (n = 84), and tissue microarrays (n = 230) from patients with ovarian cancer. Overexpression of PAFR was found in most nonmucinous types of ovarian cancer but not in HOSE and mucinous cancer cells. Correspondingly, PAF significantly induced cell proliferation and invasion only in PAFR-positive cells (i.e., OVCA429 and OVCA432), but not in PAFR-negative ovarian cells (HOSE and mucinous RMUG-L). The dependency of cell proliferation and invasion on PAFR was further confirmed using PAFR-specific small interfering RNA gene silencing probes, antibodies against PAFR and PAFR antagonist, ginkgolide B. Using quantitative multiplex phospho-antibody array technology, we found that tyrosine phosphorylation of EGFR/Src/FAK/paxillin was coordinately activated by PAF treatment, which was correlated with the activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and cyclin D1 as markers for cell proliferation, as well as matrix metalloproteinase 2 and 9 for invasion. Specific tyrosine Src inhibitor (PP2) reversibly blocked PAF-activated cancer cell proliferation and invasion. We suggest that PAFR is an essential upstream target of Src and other signal pathways to control the PAF-mediated cancer progression.

A cardioprotective role for platelet-activating factor through NOS-dependent S-nitrosylation

Controversy exists as to whether platelet-activating factor (PAF), a potent phospholipid mediator of inflammation, can actually protect the heart from postischemic injury. To determine whether endogenous activation of the PAF receptor is cardioprotective, we examined postischemic functional recovery in isolated hearts from wild-type and PAF receptor-knockout mice. Postischemic function was reduced in hearts with targeted deletion of the PAF receptor and in wild-type hearts treated with a PAF receptor antagonist. Furthermore, perfusion with picomolar concentrations of PAF improved postischemic function in hearts from wild-type mice. To elucidate the mechanism of a PAF-mediated cardioprotective effect, we employed a model of intracellular Ca2+ overload and loss of function in nonischemic ventricular myocytes. We found that PAF receptor activation attenuates the time-dependent loss of shortening and increases in intracellular Ca2+ transients in Ca2+ -overloaded myocytes. These protective effects of PAF depend on nitric oxide, but not activation of cGMP. In addition, we found that reversible S-nitrosylation of myocardial proteins must occur in order for PAF to moderate Ca2+ overload and loss of myocyte function. Thus our data are consistent with the hypothesis that low-level PAF receptor activation initiates nitric oxide-induced S-nitrosylation of Ca2+ -handling proteins, e.g., L-type Ca2+ channels, to attenuate Ca2+ overload during ischemia-reperfusion in the heart. Since inhibition of the PAF protective pathway reduces myocardial postischemic function, our results raise concern that clinical therapies for inflammatory diseases that lead to complete blockade of the PAF receptor may eliminate a significant, endogenous cardioprotective pathway.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) increases NO production in human endothelial cells—real-time monitoring by DAR-4M AM

Background Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a potent inflammatory lipid mediator that increases vascular permeability and vasodilation. Several studies have addressed the effect of PAF on nitric oxide (NO) production from microvessels in vivo. Objective The aim of present study was to evaluate the effect of PAF on NO production in primary cultured human vascular endothelial cells. Methods Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were loaded with diaminorhodamine-4M acetoxymethyl ester (DAR-4MAM), and the cells were stimulated with PAF. Intracellular NO production was monitored as increase in fluorescence intensity. Also, NO production was visualized at cellular levels using DAR-4M AM and fluorescence imaging. Results Significant increases in NO production in HUVECs were soon after the PAF stimulation, reaching a plateau after 10 min of the stimulation. The increase of NO production at 10 min after the stimulation was statistically significant ( p<0.05) for 0.01–10 μM PAF. PAF-induced NO production was abolished by pretreatment of HUVECs with a NOS inhibitor N G-monomethyl- l-arginine ( l-NMMA) or PAF receptor antagonist BN 52021. LysoPAF, the inactive metabolite of PAF, did not exert a significant effect on intracellular NO levels. Conclusions These results provide direct evidence that PAF cause intracellular NO production via activation of PAF receptors in human vascular endothelial cells

Blockades of phospholipase A2 and platelet-activating factor receptors reduce the hemocyte phagocytosis in Rhodnius prolixus: In vitro experiments

The hemocytes phagocytosis in response to microorganisms may play an important role in the cellular immune responses of insects. Here, we have evaluated the effects of the platelet-activating factor (PAF) and eicosanoids in the phagocytosis of hemocyte monolayers of Rhodnius prolixus to the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Experiments showed that the phagocytosis of yeast cells by Rhodnius hemocytes is very efficient in both controls and cells treated with PAF and arachidonic acid. Phagocytosis of yeast particles is significantly blocked when the specific phopholipase A2 inhibitor, dexamethasone, is applied on the hemocytes. By contrast, dexamethasone-pretreated hemocyte monolayers exhibit a drastic increase in the quantity of yeast cell-hemocyte internalization when the cells are treated by arachidonic acid. In addition, phagocytosis presents significant reduction in hemocyte monolayers treated with a specific PAF receptor antagonist, WEB 2086. Nevertheless, inhibition of phagocytosis with WEB 2086 is counteracted by the treatment of the hemocyte monolayers with PAF. In conclusion, phagocytosis of yeast cells by hemocytes is related to the activation of PAF receptors and eicosanoid pathways in the bloodsucking bug, R. prolixus.

PAF-induced kinin B1 receptor in vivo up-regulation: involvement of distinct kinase pathways

Platelet activating factor (PAF) is an important mediator in several pathophysiological processes. PAF receptor activation can causes a series of cellular and tissuemodifications and can lead to the production and/or release of diverse molecules, including cytokines, chemokines and receptors, amongst others, which are capable of amplifying the inflammation. PAF can up-regulate kinin B1 receptor expression by various mechanisms. In the present study, we show an additional mechanism by which PAF can lead to an in vivo up-regulation of B1 receptors. Our results clearly show that the phosphorylation of both ERK1/2 and JNK MAPKinases is an important step for this event. However, the exact mechanisms (transcriptional and post- transcriptional) by which PAF can trigger kinase phosphorylation and then up-regulate the B1 receptor require further investigation.

Involvement of P38 MAP kinase in the augmentation of UVB-mediated apoptosis via the epidermal platelet-activating factor receptor

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a group of phosphocholines with various biological effects, which are mediated by the PAF receptor (PAF-R). Our previous studies have demonstrated that ultraviolet B radiation (UVB) is a potent stimulus for PAF production, and that the presence of the PAF-R on epithelial cells results in an augmentation of UVB-induced apoptosis. Inasmuch as PAF-R activation results in numerous signal transduction pathways, the present study was designed to characterize the signal transduction pathway responsible for PAF-R-mediated enhanced UVB-induced cytotoxicity. Using a model system of PAF-R-negative and -positive epithelioid KB cells, we demonstrate that inhibitors of p38 MAP kinase block the augmentation of UVB-mediated apoptosis seen in PAF-R-positive KB cells. In contrast, pharmacological and/or molecular inhibition of other pathways linked to PAF-R activation including ERK MAP kinase and NFkappaB do not affect PAF-R-mediated cytotoxicity. This study demonstrates the important role that p38 MAP kinase plays in PAF-R-mediated augmentation of UVB cytotoxicity.

Activation of platelet‐activating factor receptor in SZ95 sebocytes results in inflammatory cytokine and prostaglandin E2 production

Platelet-activating factor (PAF) is a group of phosphocholines with various biological effects mediated by the PAF receptor (PAF-R). Activation of the epidermal PAF-R induces the expression of inflammatory mediators, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)). The upregulation of COX-2 expression has been shown to be involved in sebocyte proliferation, sebaceous gland inflammation and carcinogenesis. The present study was designed to investigate whether PAF-R activation could induce the expression of COX-2 and production of PGE(2), as well as secretion of the inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-8 (IL-8), in the immortalized sebaceous gland cell line SZ95. Using calcium mobilization studies, we first confirmed that PAF can signal through PAF-R in SZ95 sebocytes. We then found that the production of IL-8 was induced following treatment with PAF-R agonist, however blocked by a specific PAF-R antagonist. Induction of COX-2 expression and increased PGE(2) production were observed in SZ95 sebocytes after PAF-R activation. Finally, it was demonstrated that the production of PGE(2), induced by PAF-R activation and mediated by COX-2 expression, was blocked following PAF-R antagonism in SZ95 sebocytes. These studies suggest that SZ95 sebocytes express functional PAF-Rs and PAF-Rs are involved in regulating the expression of inflammatory mediators, including COX-2, PGE(2) and IL-8.

Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide-induced cytosolic phospholipase A2 activation interferes with salivary mucin synthesis via platelet activating factor generation

Liberation of arachidonate from membrane phospholipids by cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) upon cell activation is considered the key step in generation of platelet-activating factor (PAF), a potent lipid messenger recognized as the most proximal mediator of inflammatory events triggered by bacterial infection. Here, we report on the role of cPLA2 in the disturbances in salivary mucin synthesis evoked by the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of a periodontopathic bacterium, P. gingivalis. Using mucous cells of sublingual gland, we show that P. gingivalis LPS detrimental effect on salivary mucin synthesis, associated with up-regulation in PAF and endothelin-1 (ET-1) generation, was subject to suppression by a specific inhibitor of cPLA2, MAFP. Moreover, the LPS-induced changes in mucin synthesis and ET-1 generation were countered by PAF receptor antagonist, BN52020. The inhibition by PAF antagonist of the LPS-induced reduction in mucin synthesis was countered by wortmannin, an inhibitor of PI3K, as well as by ERK inhibitor, PD98059. The blockade of ERK caused also inhibition of the LPS-induced cPLA2 activation and amplification in the impedance capacity of PAF antagonist on the LPS-induced ET-1 generation, while the inhibitor of PI3K had no effect. The findings are the first to demonstrate that P. gingivalis LPS detrimental effect on salivary mucin synthesis involves ERK-dependent cPLA2 activation that leads to up-regulation in PAF production and ET-1 generation. We also show that PAF receptor activation is a critical prerequisite for the LPS-induced ET-1 production.

Activation of platelet-activating factor receptor in SZ95 sebocytes results in inflammatory cytokine and prostaglandin E2 production

Activation of platelet-activating factor receptor in SZ95 sebocytes results in inflammatory cytokine and prostaglandin E2 production

Lipoteichoic acid-induced nitric oxide production depends on the activation of platelet-activating factor receptor and Jak2

Han, S. H., J. H. Kim, H. S. Seo, M. H. Martin, G.-H. Chung, S. M. Michalek, and M. H. Nahm. 2006. Lipoteichoic acid-induced nitric oxide production depends on the activation of platelet-activating factor receptor and Jak2. [ J. Immunol . 176: 573–579][1] . In the Abstract , the year and volume

MCI-186 (edaravone), a free radical scavenger, attenuates ischemia–reperfusion injury and activation of phospholipase A2 in an isolated rat lung model after 18h of cold preservation

Increased microvascular permeability and extravasation of inflammatory cells are key events in ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. We hypothesized that edaravone, a free radical scavenger, is able to attenuate IR lung injury by decreasing oxidative stress and phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) activation, which otherwise may lead to lung injury through PAF receptor (PAF-R) activation. We used an isolated rat lung model. Five groups were defined (n=7, each): in the sham and vehicle group, lungs were immediately washed after thoracotomy or perfused for 2h without an ischemic period, respectively. In the ischemic groups, 10mg/kg of MCI-186 (edavorane group), 1mg/kg of PAF-R inhibitor (ABT-491 group) or saline (control group) were i.v. administered 20 min before harvest. Lungs were flushed with LPD solution, stored at 4 degrees C for 18 h, and reperfused for 2h. Compared to vehicle group, IR significantly decreased the PO(2) level and increased the wet-to-dry ratio, proteins in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in the control group, while edaravone treatment maintained the PO(2) similar to the vehicle group and significantly reduced edema formation and neutrophil extravasation. Consistently, IR significantly increased lipid peroxidation, cytosolic-PLA(2) activity mainly via alveolar macrophages, soluble-PLA(2) activity, leukotriene B(4), and PAF-R expression in control lungs, together with a decreased PAF acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH) activity. Edaravone significantly reduced all of these, but increased PAF-AH activity. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of the PAF-R attenuated IR injury resembling edaravone action. Edaravone attenuates lung IR injury by suppressing oxidative damage and PLA(2) activation, which otherwise partially mediates edema formation and neutrophil extravasation through PAF-R activation.

Ultraviolet B Radiation Generates Platelet-activating Factor-like Phospholipids underlying Cutaneous Damage

Ultraviolet B light (UVB) causes cutaneous inflammation and cell death, but the agents responsible are not defined. These studies examined the role of the platelet-activating factor (PAF) signaling system in UVB-mediated effects. Expression of the PAF receptor in the PAF receptor-negative epidermoid cell line KB augmented apoptosis in response to UVB irradiation. Overexpression of the PAF receptor in primary human keratinocytes also enhanced UVB-mediated apoptosis in vitro, and it enhanced apoptosis in an in vivo model of human keratinocytes grafted onto severe combined immune-deficient (SCID) mice. To define the mechanism by which UVB activates the PAF receptor, we used mass spectrometry to demonstrate significant amounts of the C4 PAF analogs 1-alkyl-2-(butanoyl and butenoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, as well as native PAF in an epidermal cell line after UVB irradiation. Supplementing the cells with the precursor phospholipid 1-hexadecyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (HAPC) increased the amount of C4 PAF analogs recovered after UVB exposure. We irradiated HAPC directly and found, even in the absence of a photosensitizer, fragmentation to C4-PAF receptor ligands. We conclude UVB photo-oxidizes cellular phospholipids, creating PAF analogs that stimulate the PAF receptor to induce further PAF synthesis and apoptosis. PAF signaling may participate in the cutaneous inflammation that occurs during photo-aggravated dermatoses.

Mass-dependent signaling between G protein coupled receptors

The present study provides evidence that G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways participate in an interactive signaling network governed by the principles of mass action. Using an inducible thromboxane A 2 receptor (TPR)/platelet activating factor receptor (PAFR) co-expressing cell model, TPR or PAFR expression was independently up-regulated. Immunostaining and radioligand binding experiments demonstrated that this receptor up-regulation resulted in increased GPCR : G protein mass ratios. This increase in mass ratio impacted both TPR and PAFR ligand affinity. Specifically, up-regulating TPR expression not only decreased TPR ligand affinity, but also decreased the ligand affinity of PAFRs. A similar effect on ligand affinities was observed when PAFRs were up-regulated. In addition, increasing the GPCR : G protein mass ratio for TPRs led to desensitization of the calcium mobilization response to PAFR activation, and increasing PAFR mass desensitized the TPR-mediated calcium response. Finally, it was observed that an increased TPR : G protein mass ratio was associated with a shift in the TPR signaling response, and revealed an additional TPR signaling pathway through G S. Collectively, these results describe a novel mechanism, i.e., mass-dependent GPCR signaling, by which cells can modulate their GPCR signaling pathways and signaling priorities.

Priming Effect of Lipopolysaccharide on Acetyl-Coenzyme A:Lyso-Platelet-Activating Factor Acetyltransferase Is MyD88 and TRIF Independent

LPS has a priming effect on various stimuli. For instance, LPS priming enhances the production of platelet-activating factor (PAF), a proinflammatory lipid mediator that is induced by PAF itself. Among various enzymes responsible for PAF biosynthesis, acetyl-coenzyme A:1-O-alkyl-2-lyso-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine acetyltransferase is one of the enzymes activated by PAF receptor stimulation. In this study we investigated the priming effect of LPS on the acetyltransferase activation by PAF in TLR4-knockout (KO) mice, MyD88-KO mice, and Toll/IL-1R domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-beta (TRIF)-KO mice. This enzyme was biphasically activated by LPS. Although the first peak occurred within 30 min in wild-type (WT), but not TLR4-KO or MyD88-KO, macrophages, the second phase reached a maximum within hours in WT, MyD88-KO, and TRIF-KO, but not in TLR4-KO, macrophages. Only in the second phase was the increase in acetyltransferase activity upon PAF receptor activation remarkably enhanced in WT, MyD88-KO, and TRIF-KO cells, but not in TLR4-KO cells. These data demonstrated that LPS exerted a priming effect on PAF receptor-mediated acetyltransferase activation through the TLR4-dependent, but MyD88- and TRIF-independent, pathway.

Targeted disruption of PSD-93 gene reduces platelet-activating factor-induced neurotoxicity in cultured cortical neurons

PSD-93, a molecular adaptive protein, binds to and clusters the N-methyl- d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor and assembles a specific set of signaling proteins (for example neuronal nitric oxide synthase, nNOS) around the NMDA receptor at synapses in the central nervous system. This suggests that PSD-93 might mediate many NMDA receptor-dependent physiological and pathophysiological functions. We report here that PSD-93 colocalizes and interacts with the NMDA receptor and neuronal nitric oxide synthase in cultured cortical neurons. Targeted disruption of PSD-93 gene significantly prevented NMDA receptor–nitric oxide signaling-dependent neurotoxicity triggered via platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor activation. In addition, the deficiency of PSD-93 markedly attenuated platelet-activating factor-induced increase in cyclic guanosine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cGMP) and prevented platelet-activating factor-promoted formation of NMDA receptor–neuronal nitric oxide synthase complex. These findings indicate that PSD-93 is involved in the NMDA receptor–nitric oxide-mediated pathological processing of neuronal damage triggered via platelet-activating factor receptor activation. Since platelet-activating factor is a potent neuronal injury mediator during the development of brain trauma, seizures, and ischemia, the present work suggests that PSD-93 might contribute to molecular mechanisms of neuronal damage in these brain disorders.

Activation of PAF receptor by oxidised LDL in human monocytes stimulates chemokine releases but not urokinase-type plasminogen activator expression

Background: We investigated whether the increase of urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) monocyte expression and chemokine releases induced by oxidised low density lipoproteins (LDL), which participate to vascular tissue remodeling and to atherosclerotic plaque rupture, involved proinflammatory phospholipid products having platelet-activating factor (PAF)-like activity via the PAF-receptor pathway. Methods: uPA monocyte expression was stimulated by either copper ions-oxidised or O 2 − /HO free radical-oxidised LDL. The effects of PAF and oxidised LDL on the production of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and interleukin-8 were also examined. Results: Synthetic PAF significantly enhanced chemokine releases ( P<0.001) without modifying uPA expression. Copper-oxidised LDL, which exhibit a higher content in lysophosphatidylcholines than free radical-oxidised LDL, induced a significantly higher enhancement in uPA expression ( P<0.05). By contrast, free radical-oxidised LDL were more efficient than copper-oxidised LDL to increase chemokine releases ( P<0.01). Oxidised LDL-enhanced uPA expressions were not altered by the PAF-receptor antagonist SR27417, whereas increases in chemokine releases induced by oxidised LDL and by PAF were abolished. PAF-acetylhydrolase activity was rapidly and largely inhibited in free radical-oxidised LDL when compared to copper-oxidised LDL, suggesting that free radical-oxidised LDL would contain a higher content in PAF-like products than copper-oxidised LDL. Conclusion: Our results indicated that PAF-like oxidation products are responsible for the monocyte chemokine releases, but did not contribute to the enhanced monocyte uPA expression by oxidised LDL.

Involvement of the NMDA receptor/nitric oxide signal pathway in platelet-activating factor-induced neurotoxicity.

Platelet-activating factor (PAF), a bioactive phospholipid implicated in neuronal excitotoxic death, augments the presynaptic release of glutamate. Excessive activation of postsynaptic glutamate receptors and subsequent downstream signals leads to excitotoxicity. The present study proposed that the NMDA receptor/nitric oxide (NO) signal pathway might be involved in PAF-induced neurotoxicity. After the cultured neurons were exposed to PAF for 24 h the percentage of neuronal death increased in a dose-dependent manner. The PAF effects were significantly prevented not only by BN52021, a PAF antagonist, but also by MK-801, an NMDA antagonist, and L-NAME, an NO synthase (NOS) inhibitor. Moreover, the increases in NOS activity and neuronal NOS expression induced by chronic exposure of the cultured neurons to PAF were dramatically blocked by BN52021 and MK-801, respectively. Our findings suggest that the NMDA receptor/NO signaling pathway might contribute to the pathological mechanism of cell death triggered via PAF receptor activation.

Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection in platelet-activating factor receptor-deficient mice

The generation of an inflammatory response driven by Trypanosoma cruzi or its subproducts appears to be essential for tissue injury and disease pathogenesis. However, this inflammatory response is also relevant in the control of T. cruzi replication. The lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF) has been implicated in a number of pathological conditions characterized by tissue inflammation. In the present study, we aimed at evaluating the role of PAF during T. cruzi infection by using mice that were genetically deficient in the PAF receptor. We observed that infected hearts of PAFR –/– mice had an increased number of parasite nests, associated with a more intense inflammatory infiltrate. This was associated with greater parasitemia and lethality. When wild-type and PAFR –/– mice were compared, there were no marked changes in the kinetics of the expression of MCP-1, RANTES, IFN-γ and TNF-α in heart tissue of infected animals. Moreover, serum concentrations of TNF-α, nitrate and parasite-specific IgM were similar in both groups of mice. In vitro, macrophages from PAFR –/– animals did not phagocytose trypomastigote forms when activated with PAF, leukotriene B 4 or MCP-1 and produced less nitric oxide when infected and activated with IFN-γ. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that endogenous synthesis of PAF and activation of PAF receptors control T. cruzi replication in mice in great part via facilitation of the uptake of the parasite and consequent activation of macrophages.