Mirror Neuron Activity Research Articles

Can Virtual Reality Cognitive Remediation in Bipolar Disorder Enhance Specific Skills in Young Adults through Mirror Neuron Activity?—A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial

Can Virtual Reality Cognitive Remediation in Bipolar Disorder Enhance Specific Skills in Young Adults through Mirror Neuron Activity?—A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial

Harnessing Mirror Neurons: A New Frontier in Parkinson's Disease Rehabilitation-A Scoping Review of the Literature.

Background: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia. Rehabilitation utilizing mirror neurons leverages the brain's capacity for action observation (AO) and motor imagery (MI) to enhance motor function. This approach involves patients imitating movements observed in therapists or videos, aiming to improve gait, coordination, and overall quality of life. Mirror neuron activation facilitates motor learning and may decelerate disease progression, thus enhancing patient mobility and independence. Methods: This scoping review aimed to map current evidence on PD therapies employing mirror neuron-based rehabilitation. Databases searched included PubMed, PEDro, and Cochrane. The review included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and systematic reviews that examined the effects of AO and MI in PD rehabilitation. Results: Five studies met the inclusion criteria, encompassing various rehabilitation techniques focusing on AO and MI. These studies consistently demonstrated positive outcomes, such as reduced disease severity and improved quality of life, gait, and balance in PD patients. The activation of mirror neurons through AO and MI was shown to facilitate motor learning and contribute to improved functional mobility. Conclusions: Although the included studies support the beneficial impact of AO and MI techniques in PD rehabilitation, numerous questions remain unresolved. Further research is necessary to evaluate the potential integration of these techniques into standard physiotherapy routines for PD patients. This review highlights the promise of AO and MI in enhancing motor rehabilitation for PD, suggesting the need for more comprehensive studies to validate and refine these therapeutic approaches.

MOTOR ACTION AND BRAIN PROCESSES: A NEUROSCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVE

The rapid development of neuroscience has shown how numerous aspects of behaviour reflect the characteristics of the nervous system and how having experiences depends on the interaction between numerous brain functions. In 1996 Rizzolatti’s team published an article in the journal Brain entitled “": Action Recognition in the Premotor Cortex"”, in which they demonstrated the existence of a special class of cells, defined as “mirror neurons”. When we perform a movement, we program it based on the objective we have set for ourselves: we perform different gestures and movements based on the act we want to perform, for example, having a cup of tea or clearing the table. There is a close link between motility and thought and that is often reflected by the way our mind works. Mirror neuron activity is not affected by the presence of food or the character of the visual stimulus, but, rather, by acts performed by the experimenter involving and effector-object interaction.

Brain activation during processing of mouth actions in patients with disorders of consciousness.

In the past 2 decades, several attempts have been made to promote a correct diagnosis and possible restorative interventions in patients suffering from disorders of consciousness. Sensory stimulation has been proved to be useful in sustaining the level of arousal/awareness and to improve behavioural responsiveness with a significant effect on oro-motor functions. Recently, action observation has been proposed as a stimulation strategy in patients with disorders of consciousness, based on neurophysiological evidence that the motor cortex can be activated not only during action execution but also when actions are merely observed in the absence of motor output, or during listening to action sounds and speech. This mechanism is provided by the activity of mirror neurons. In the present study, a group of patients with disorders of consciousness (11 males, 4 females; median age: 55 years; age range: 19-74 years) underwent task-based functional MRI in which they had, in one condition, to observe and listen to the sound of mouth actions, and in another condition, to listen to verbs with motor or abstract content. In order to verify the presence of residual activation of the mirror neuron system, the brain activations of patients were compared with that of a group of healthy individuals (seven males, eight females; median age: 33.4 years; age range: 24-65 years) performing the same tasks. The results show that brain activations were lower in patients with disorders of consciousness compared with controls, except for primary auditory areas. During the audiovisual task, 5 out of 15 patients with disorders of consciousness showed only residual activation of low-level visual and auditory areas. Activation of high-level parieto-premotor areas was present in six patients. During the listening task, three patients showed only low-level activations, and six patients activated also high-level areas. Interestingly, in both tasks, one patient with a clinical diagnosis of vegetative state showed activations of high-level areas. Region of interest analysis on blood oxygen level dependent signal change in temporal, parietal and premotor cortex revealed a significant linear relation with the level of clinical functioning, assessed with coma recovery scale-revised. We propose a classification of the patient's response based on the presence of low-level and high-level activations, combined with the patient's functional level. These findings support the use of action observation and listening as possible stimulation strategies in patients with disorders of consciousness and highlight the relevance of combined methods based on functional assessment and brain imaging to provide more detailed neuroanatomical specificity about residual activated areas at both cortical and subcortical levels.

Effects of mirror neuron activation therapies on functionality in older adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis

Purpose: To identify the effects of mirror neuron activation (MNAT) combined or not with physical exercise (PE) in healthy older adults, on functionality, balance, gait velocity and risk of falls. Methods: A systematic electronic search was performed in PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane, and Embase databases. Results: Thirteen randomized controlled trials were included in the qualitative analysis, and eleven in the quantitative analysis. All studies showed fair to high quality and the most frequent high-risk bias was “Blinding of participants and personnel”. Compared to the control condition, higher improvement was shown in older people who received MNAT, on functionality (1.57 [0.57, 2.62], balance (1.95 [1.32, 2.572]), and gait velocity (1.20 [0.30, 2.11]). Compared to PE, MNAT combined with PE does not improve functionality. More studies are needed to assess MNAT effectiveness in the rest of the outcomes. Conclusions: Neuron system activation through MNAT improves relevant abilities in older adults, with better results when including functional activities. However, the beneficial effects on these variables of adding MNAT to a PE program are controversial.

Behavioural Synchronisation between Dogs and Humans: Unveiling Interspecific Motor Resonance?

Dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans is of growing scientific interest. However, studies lack a comprehensive exploration of the neurocognitive foundations of this social cognitive ability. Drawing parallels from the mechanisms underlying behavioural synchronisation in humans, specifically motor resonance and the recruitment of mirror neurons, we hypothesise that dogs' behavioural synchronisation with humans is underpinned by a similar mechanism, namely interspecific motor resonance. Based on a literature review, we argue that dogs possess the prerequisites for motor resonance, and we suggest that interspecific behavioural synchronisation relies on the activation of both human and canine mirror neurons. Furthermore, interspecific behavioural studies highlight certain characteristics of motor resonance, including motor contagion and its social modulators. While these findings strongly suggest the potential existence of interspecific motor resonance, direct proof remains to be established. Our analysis thus paves the way for future research to confirm the existence of interspecific motor resonance as the neurocognitive foundation for interspecific behavioural synchronisation. Unravelling the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying this behavioural adjustment holds profound implications for understanding the evolutionary dynamics of dogs alongside humans and improving the day-to-day management of dog-human interactions.

Thinking through and about anthropomorphic figurines. A cognitive and neuroarchaeological approach to the study of peak sanctuary practices

One of the defining characteristics of Cretan peak sanctuaries are the clay anthropomorphic figurines, which are observable in large quantities on nearly all such sites, and which are seldom associated with other contexts. The exclusivity and omnipresence of these artefacts renders them one of the most suitable areas of research with a view to re-examining the practices and performances taking place on these sites. This study focuses on the clay anthropomorphic figurines, following a neuroarchaeological and cognitive approach, drawing on neurological studies regarding the function and neurological and mental sequalae of mirror neuron activation, as well as concepts of material engagement, and the use of the figurines as a form of shared exographic memory system. The figurines are thereby seen as vital active constituents of the cognitive processes taking place in these sites, facilitating and enhancing the cognitive preparation for –and participation in– the peak sanctuary performances. Through this approach, the role of these objects as part of a larger cognitive network, shared by the participants of the peak sanctuaries throughout Crete, is proposed, and the potential socio-political and economic significance of this role is highlighted.

Does Action Observation of the Whole Task Influence Mirror Neuron System and Upper Limb Muscle Activity Better Than Part Task in People With Stroke?

Background: Task-based action observation and imitation (AOI) is a promising intervention to enhance upper limb (UL) motor function poststroke. However, whether whole/part task must be trained in the AOI therapy needs further substantiation. Objective: The objective of this study is to assess and compare the mirror neuron activity and UL muscle activity during AOI of reaching task in terms of whole task (complete movement) and part task (proximal arm movements and distal arm movements). Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 26 participants with first-time unilateral stroke were asked to observe the prerecorded videos of a reaching task in terms of a whole task and proximal and distal components, followed by imitation of the task, respectively. Electroencephalographic (EEG) mu rhythm suppression and electromyographic amplitude of six UL muscles were measured during the task. Results: The analysis of EEG revealed a statistically significant mu suppression score, indicating mirror neuron system activity, during AOI of the whole task in C3 (p = <0.001) and C4 (p = <0.001) electrodes compared to the part task. Percentage maximum voluntary contraction amplitudes of the deltoid (p = 0.002), supraspinatus (p = <0.001), triceps brachii (p = 0.002), brachioradialis (p = 0.006), and extensor carpi radialis (p = <0.001) muscles showed a significant increase in muscle activity during AOI of the whole task. Also, there seems to be a task observation-specific activation of muscles following AOI of proximal or distal tasks. Conclusion: The practice of the whole task should be given emphasis while framing the AOI treatment module to enhance reaching in people with stroke. Trial registration: Clinical Trials Registry-India (CTRI) identifier: CTRI/2018/04/013466.

Clinical applications and efficacy of mirror neuron function

Mirror therapy aims to restore the function of a disabled body part by using the function of mirror neurons in the brain and mimicking the physiological activity of a healthy body part. The existence of mirror neurons was first discovered in the monkey brain, then they were proven to occur in the human brain. The working pattern is always the same. If one limb moves, the correct part of the brain is activated and the mirror neurons responsible for stimulating the other limbs are activated. This is how the "mirror" in the brain works. The therapy uses a box with a mirror on one side and hides the impaired limb in it.. When a healthy limb moves, it is reflected in the mirror. The brain receives it as a movement of an inefficient limb, even though it is only an illusion. It drives the recruitment of neural joints and provides the reconstruction of neural pathways. The activity of mirror neurons is used in rehabilitation, in mirror therapy (MT), observational action therapy (AOT) and their variants, such as therapies based on Virtual Reality (VR). A significant effect of this treatment was observed in phantom limb pain (PLP) and post-stroke syndromes, such as motor aphasia, hemiparesis of the lower or upper limb. There are reports on the use of MT in some mental diseases or in autistic people in learning emotions. This review outlines the current possibilities and hopes for therapies based on mirror neuron functions based on selected cases.

Corrigendum: Mirror neuron activity during audiovisual appreciation of opera performance

Corrigendum: Mirror neuron activity during audiovisual appreciation of opera performance

Mirror neuron activity depending on the content and stage of the observed action: a TMS study.

The firing rate of the mirror neuron system in monkeys decreases systematically with more repetitions. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the activity of the mirror neuron system varies based on the observed movement and the contents of the action, as well as whether there is inhibition in the mirror neuron system when humans observe repeated actions. If inhibition is present, the second question of the study is whether it is related to the organization of the observed action. Fourteen healthy volunteers participated in the study. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied to the left primary motor cortex and motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from the right first dorsal interosseous and abductor pollicis brevis muscles while the participants were watching videos specially prepared for the study. There were no significant changes in MEP amplitudes compared to baseline MEPs while observing aimless action. However, while participants watched the repeated action video, the mean MEP amplitude increased at the beginning of the movement, but neither facilitation nor inhibition was detected when the participants watched the phase of grasping the object of the action compared to the baseline MEP amplitude. On the other hand, while participants were watching different activities, an increased MEP amplitude was observed at the beginning of the movement and in the grasping of the object of the action. Additionally, there was no significant reduction in MEP amplitude during any movement stages while observing the repeated action video. The findings of this study suggest that the activation of the mirror neuron system in humans depends on the content and stages of the observed movement. Additionally, there was no inhibition or systematic reduction in MEP amplitudes while watching a repeated action.

The Effect of Modeling Methods on Mirror Neuron Activity and a Motor Skill Acquisition and Retention.

Mirror neurons have been suggested as a potential neural mechanism of observational learning. This study aims to investigate the effect of self-modeling, skilled model, and learning model on mu rhythm suppression and golf putting acquisition and retention. The study was conducted on 45 male volunteer students (aged 19.4±0.37 years) in three experimental groups, self-modeling, skilled, and learning models with six sessions of physical and observational training in three periods of pre-test, acquisition, and retention. In the pre-test, after the initial familiarity with the skill, participants performed 10 golf putting actions while scores were recorded. Then, electrical brain waves in C3, C4, and Cz regions were recorded during the observation of 10 golf putting actions by their group-related models. The acquisition period consisted of golf putting training during six sessions, each consisting of six blocks of 10 trials. Before each training block, participants observed golf putting related to their group 10 times in the form of a video. Acquisition and delayed retention tests were also performed by recording scores of 10 golf putting actions, as well as recording electrical brain waves while observing the skill performed by the related model. Mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the mu rhythm suppression in the pre-test was more in the self-modeling group compared to the skilled model and learning model groups, but this suppression was not significantly different in all three groups in the acquisition and retention tests. In putting task variables, all three groups that had no significant difference in the pre-test period made considerable progress in learning the desired skill from the pre-test to the acquisition test, and this progress was somewhat stable until the retention test. Also, both in the acquisition and retention periods, the self-modeling group showed better performance than the other two groups; however, no significant difference was observed between these groups. These results suggest that the model-observer similarity is a crucial factor in modeling interventions and can affect the rate of mu rhythm suppression.

Neurodevelopmental Effects of Perinatal TCDD Exposure Differ from Those of Other PCDD/Fs in Vietnamese Children Living near the Former US Air Base in Da Nang, Vietnam

This study reports that children exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetra-chlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), the major toxin in Agent Orange, from the breast milk of mothers residing near the former Da Nang US air base in Vietnam may have specific alterations in higher brain functions, resulting in social and communication deficits, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). After the age of 8 years, girls with high TCDD showed increased attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-like behaviors and altered mirror neuron activity, which is often observed in children with ASD. However, no significant relationship between autistic traits and toxic equivalency values of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (TEQ-PCDD/Fs) was found in these children. Notably, boys with high levels of TEQ-PCDD/Fs showed poor language and motor development in the first 3 years of life, although boys with high TCDD levels did not. However, at 8 years of age, boys with high TCDD showed reading learning difficulties, a neurodevelopmental disorder. These findings suggest that perinatal TCDD exposure impacts social-emotional cognitive functions, leading to sex-specific neurodevelopmental disorders-learning difficulty in boys and ADHD in girls. Future studies with a greater number of children exposed to high levels of TCDD are necessary to estimate the threshold values for neurodevelopmental effects.

Physiological Evaluation for Highly Sensitive Person using Facial Expression and Motor Imagery

The term “Highly Sensitive Person” (HSP) refers to an individual’s temperament. They have common characteristics with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other, and their central feature is a high empathy. However, the questionnaires may be inaccurate because they depend on the examinee’s self-perception. Conversely, emotional empathy and activation of mirror neurons are as characteristics of HSP. We thought a quantitative evaluation of people with HSP would be possible if we could physiologically measure these characteristics. In this study, we investigated the correlation between the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) and changes in alpha wave band power induced by facial expression stimulation and the event-related desynchronization (ERD) induced by the video of motor imagery as physiological indicators. The results showed HSPS scores of above 100 had an ERD of above 50%, indicating mirror system activity. Furthermore, HSPS scores of above 100 had lower alpha wave band power values when presented sadness face images.

Grasp-specific high-frequency broadband mirror neuron activity during reach-and-grasp movements in humans.

Broadly congruent mirror neurons, responding to any grasp movement, and strictly congruent mirror neurons, responding only to specific grasp movements, have been reported in single-cell studies with primates. Delineating grasp properties in humans is essential to understand the human mirror neuron system with implications for behavior and social cognition. We analyzed electrocorticography data from a natural reach-and-grasp movement observation and delayed imitation task with 3 different natural grasp types of everyday objects. We focused on the classification of grasp types from high-frequency broadband mirror activation patterns found in classic mirror system areas, including sensorimotor, supplementary motor, inferior frontal, and parietal cortices. Classification of grasp types was successful during movement observation and execution intervals but not during movement retention. Our grasp type classification from combined and single mirror electrodes provides evidence for grasp-congruent activity in the human mirror neuron system potentially arising from strictly congruent mirror neurons.

Implicit Bias Scenario Design: What Can We Learn from Cognitive Science?

Designing simulation-based experiences (SBE) that address bias requires an understanding of evidence-based bias mitigating strategies to accurately identify critical actions and performance measures. However, mitigating bias strategies have their own set of ambiguities. Through the lens of applied behavioral and cognitive science, this paper presents an interdisciplinary framework on “perspective-taking” that can be used to explore mechanisms of implicit bias, bias mitigating strategies, and practical applications that can be incorporated into simulation-based experiences. By analyzing the interconnections between attention, judgment, and the reconstruction of experience, we specify at least two strategies for implicit bias SBE. We propose that attention-directing strategies can be incorporated into scenario design through: “Cognitive Recreation” (CR), with a focus on mirror neuron activation in recreating others’ experiences; and “Emotional Distance Reflection” (EDR), with a focus on minimizing emotional bias, for example, egocentricity bias in the emotional domain (EEB). We specify CR and EDR structure and application in the Keyser-Gilbert Framework.

Mu-desynchronization, N400 and corticospinal excitability during observation of natural and anatomically unnatural finger movements.

The action observation networks (AON) (or the mirror neuron system) are the neural underpinnings of visuomotor integration and play an important role in motor control. Besides, one of the main functions of the human mirror neuron system is recognition of observed actions and the prediction of its outcome through the comparison with the internal mental motor representation. Previous studies focused on the human mirror neurons (MNs) activation during object-oriented movements observation, therefore intransitive movements observation effects on MNs activity remains relatively little-studied. Moreover, the dependence of MNs activation on the biomechanical characteristics of observed movement and their biological plausibility remained highly underexplored. In this study we proposed that naturalness of observed intransitive movement can modulate the MNs activity. Event-related desynchronization (ERD) of sensorimotor electroencephalography (EEG) rhythms, N400 event-related potentials (ERPs) component and corticospinal excitability were investigated in twenty healthy volunteers during observation of simple non-transitive finger flexion that might be either biomechanically natural or unnatural when finger wriggled out toward the dorsal side of palm. We showed that both natural and unnatural movements caused mu/beta-desynchronization, which gradually increased during the flexion phase and returned to baseline while observation of extension. Desynchronization of the mu-rhythm was significantly higher during observation of the natural movements. At the same time, beta-rhythm was not found to be sensitive to the action naturalness. Also, observation of unnatural movements caused an increased amplitude of the N400 component registered in the centro-parietal regions. We suggest that the sensitivity of N400 to intransitive action observation with no explicit semantic context might imply the broader role of N400 sources within AON. Surprisingly, no changes in corticospinal excitability were found. This lack of excitability modulation by action observation could be related with dependence of the M1 activity on the observed movement phase.

Activity of Mirror Neurons and Its Effect on Various Diseases

Ayna nöronların nöroanatomik yapılanması ve işlevselliğinin araştırılması son yıllarda oldukça artmıştır. Özellikle nörolojik ve ortopedik hasta gruplarında uygulanan tedavi yaklaşımlarında pasif uygulamalar yerine hastanın katılımının olduğu aktif uygulamalar tercih edilmektedir. Bunun temel sebeplerinden birisi ayna nöronları ve birincil motor korteksi dâhil ederek tedaviyi kalıcı hale getirmeyi amaçlamaktır. Ayna nöronların fonksiyonel ve disfonksiyonel durumlarını ortaya koymak, tedavi seanslarında hastaların semptomlarını anlamada çok büyük katkı sağlamaktadır. Özellikle ayna nöronları aktive ederek planlanan ayna terapisi ile hastalar nöronal bağlantılarını yeniden yapılandırarak nöroplastik aktivite sağlarlar ve böylece iyileşme süreçlerine katkıda bulunmuş olurlar. Literatür taramalarında ayna nöronların aktivasyonlarının yer aldığı hastalıkların yapısal özellikleri birbirinden farklı olsa da ortak özellik olarak ayna nöronların aktive edilerek tedaviye katkı sağladığını söylemek mümkündür. Yapılan tedavi uygulamalarında, ilgili fonksiyonel hareketin hasta tarafından fiziksel olarak yapılmadığı durumlarda dahi bilişsel olarak hareketin yapıldığının imgelenmesi, ayna nöronları aktive ederek hastanın iyilik halini arttırdığı belirlenmiştir.

Brain activity in healthy elderly persons when presented with swallowing-related videos: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study

ObjectiveFunctional training is necessary for swallowing rehabilitation; however, there is a risk of aspiration. Indirect swallowing training involving mirror neuron activity may be useful for swallowing recovery, as there is no risk of aspiration. MethodsThis study investigated the activity of mirror neurons in the cerebral cortex (Brodmann areas 6, 40, and 44) while healthy elderly adults (eight men and seven women; average age, 66.4 years) watched swallowing-related videos. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to examine the presence or absence of mirror neuron activity during the presentation of four types of swallowing-related videos. ResultsThe strongest brain activity was observed during the chewing/swallowing fluoroscopic video, and female participants showed increased activity compared with male participants. Some activity was observed for all four video types; however, the highest intensity occurred during the masticatory swallowing fluoroscopy video. ConclusionsSince there was mirror neuron activity while participants watched the videos, it is possible that it mimics swallowing and can therefore be used for safe, indirect swallowing training during rehabilitation.

Age-related Differences in Mu Rhythm During Emotional Destination Memory Task.

Destination memory defined as the ability to remember to whom we addressed a piece of information is found to be impaired in normal aging. Theories of affect development and research findings have shown that emotional charging improves performance on memory tasks, and also that Mu rhythm is desynchronized as an index of mirror neuron activation during such tasks. In this paper, we sought to investigate the differences in Mu rhythm during an emotional destination memory task, between younger and older adults. 16 cognitively normal older adults, recruited from Alzheimer's disease day center and 16 young adults, recruited via advertisements, participated in this experimental study. We investigated destination memory of emotionally charged faces (Emotional Destination Memory, EDM) while applying electroencephalograph (EEG) in real time in young versus older adults. We measured Mu rhythm in frontal, fronto-temporal and central areas. EEG data has been pre-processed, segmented in non-overlapping epochs, and independent component analysis (ICA) has been conducted to reject artifacts. Results showed that young adults performed better than older adults in remembering facts associated with angry faces. Also, different neurophysiological activation was found, with older adults showing Mu suppression in frontal and fronto-temporal regions, specifically in F3, F7 and F8 electrodes, in contrast with young adults who showed Mu enhancement. Regarding within group differences, it was found that in the older adults group, electrodes F8 and central C3 were the most activated, while in the young adults group, C3 was the most activated electrode. The findings suggest better behavioral performance of young adults as a result of better cognitive state and adaptive bias. On a neurophysiological level, it is suggested that older adults employ Mu suppression, thus possible activation of mirror neurons, as a compensatory mechanism while mirroring properties are not spontaneously activated in young adults.