Activated Bleaching Earth Research Articles

Study of Kinetic Model for the Adsorption of β-carotene on Activated Bleaching Earth in the Bleaching of Cambodian Soybean Oil

Study of Kinetic Model for the Adsorption of β-carotene on Activated Bleaching Earth in the Bleaching of Cambodian Soybean Oil

Regeneration of spent bleaching earth using microwave assisted extraction method with hexane as solvent for the bleaching of crude palm oil

One of the wastes in palm oil mills is spent bleaching earth (SBE) which is produced from the bleaching process. In landfills, SBE can produce unpleasant odors, pollute the land and can be quickly oxidized and spontaneously auto ignition occurs. SBE consists of residual oil, phospholipids and several minor components resulting from the bleaching process. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) has several advantages over conventional extraction methods because its selective heating increases the effectiveness of the extraction process. The effect of different variables such as irradiation power, contact time and solid to solvent ratio was investigated. After extraction, regenerated spent bleaching earth (RSBE) is used in the bleaching of palm oil with activated bleaching earth (ABE) as a comparison. From this study it can be concluded that MAE can be used in the regeneration of SBE with hexane as solvent. The best conditions for each variable were an extraction time of 40 minutes, a solid to liquid ratio of 1: 4 and a microwave power of 450 W. Using RSBE, the highest yield obtained was 18.63%. Thus, RSBE can be reused in the bleaching process. However, to obtain the same quality results as treated using ABE, more RSBE is needed.

Glycidyl ester and 3‐MCPD ester content in esters of monoglyceride and polyglycerol esters

It is a well-established fact that 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters (GE) are groups of food-processing contaminants, which presents several health issues and that their presence should be reduced to the lowest possible level. The public focus has been on edible oils and fats, but in this work the 3-MCPDE and GE formation or reduction effect of the esterification is investigated in the synthesis of the food emulsifiers ACETEM, CITREM, LACTEM, PGE, and PGPR. It is shown through factory productions that the content of glycidol, 3-MCPD and their esters as a sum is most often below 5 mg/kg MCPD equivalents. This is even the case when the raw material contains considerable amounts and in cases up to 75 mg/kg. It is also indicated that the content of glycidol + GE changes much more than 3-MCPD +3-MCPD ester, and that the total sum is always reduced through the esterification process. Lab-scale results on CITREM suggest that 3-MCPD +3-MCPD ester comprise a significant part of the total content of 3-MCPD equivalents in the end-product. That is, it is likely that the glycidol + GE content in the end-product is most often well below 1 mg/kg (quantified as free glycidol). The emulsifier ester production processes are characterized by acidic conditions, and this fits nicely with other reports that e.g. acid activated bleaching earth is effective for glycidol/GE reduction in edible oils.

Two-step Biodiesel Production from Used Activated Bleaching Earth at Palm Oil Refining Plant

A study on two-step biodiesel production of agricultural by-products, namely palm oil derived using activated bleaching earth )UABE), collected from the Oleen Palm Oil industrial refining plant consisting of 22.4 % of waste oil. This waste oil showed free fatty acid content and a saponification value of 15.5 % and 199.7 mg KOH/g, respectively. The FFA content after esterification should be approximately 1.0%, not only to save glycerol and the catalyst involved in the esterification but also to achieve high biodiesel conversion during the transesterification. An alkaline catalyst was successfully used to produce biodiesel in the second step. A 97.6% conversion to biodiesel based on the European Standard EN 14214:2003 was achieved under the conditions (1.0% NaOH catalyst relative to waste oil, the molar ratio of free fatty acid, and methanol of 1:13.22, 60ºC, 1h). Overall, this novel two-step process achieved highly enhanced biodiesel conversion (74.6% to 100.0%) with a significantly increased molar ratio of free fatty acid and methanol (1:2.71 to 1:15.89) and catalyst requirements (1.0% NaOH).

Determination of optimum conditions for thermal regeneration and characterization of a spent bleaching earth

In this study, the optimal conditions of the thermal regeneration, for a spent bleaching earth (SBE) used to bleaching of soybean oil was evaluated. In order to determine the optimal conditions, it was used the response surface method (RSM). The UV-VIS spectrophotometry assays were performed in the soybean oil to determine the bleaching performance. The similarities and differences between the activated bleaching earth (ABE), the spent bleaching earth (SBE) and the regenerated spent bleaching earth (RSBE) (only best regeneration result obtained) samples were evaluated by means of atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The bleaching performance of the regenerated spent bleaching earth (RSBE) ranged between 47.62–100 %, with the best result being obtained for assay at 600 °C during 90 min. The optimal conditions for the thermal regeneration suggested by model were 108 min at 587 °C (103%). The characteristics of the regenerated spent bleaching earth were similar to the activated bleaching earth (ABE).

Green Refining of Waste Lubricating Oil: A China Perspective

Presently, many regeneration processes of waste lubricating oil, such as catalytic hydrogenation, are available. However, some of these processes are highly costly and not suitable for Chinese economic conditions, and some may produce contaminated impurities such as acid slag, which cannot meet environmental protection requirements. This study aims to develop a green process for the regeneration of waste lubricating oil into a base oil, which should meet the requirements of green chemistry, have the characteristics of simple operation, low cost, less pollution and high recovery rate, and turn wastes into renewable resources. The new process developed via this research has three stages. First, mechanical and large particle impurities in the waste lubricating oil were removed by pretreatment. Second, most of the colloid and asphaltene were removed by thermal extraction and sedimentation. Finally, the activated bleaching earth was used to further purify the waste lubricating oil. The performance evaluation of the finally obtained lubricating base oil conformed to the standard of the HVI-100 lubricating oil. The total recovery rate of the process was about 63.5%. Citation: Â Wu, J., Li, B., Wang, W., Yang, S., Liu, P., Yang, C., and Ding, Y. (2019). Green Refining of Waste Lubricating Oil: A China Perspective. Trends in Renewable Energy, 5, 165-180. DOI: 10.17737/tre.2019.5.2.0084

New Insights on Degumming and Bleaching Process Parameters on The Formation of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-Diol Esters and Glycidyl Esters in Refined, Bleached, Deodorized Palm Oil.

This paper examines the interactions of degumming and bleaching processes as well as their influences on the formation of 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters in refined, bleached and deodorized palm oil by using D-optimal design. Water degumming effectively reduced the 3-MCPDE content up to 50%. Acid activated bleaching earth had a greater effect on 3-MCPDE reduction compared to natural bleaching earth and acid activated bleaching earth with neutral pH, indicating that performance and adsorption capacities of bleaching earth are the predominant factors in the removal of esters, rather than its acidity profile. The combination of high dosage phosphoric acid during degumming with the use of acid activated bleaching earth eliminated almost all glycidyl esters during refining. Besides, the effects of crude palm oil quality was assessed and it was found that the quality of crude palm oil determines the level of formation of 3-MCPDE and glycidyl esters in palm oil during the high temperature deodorization step of physical refining process. Poor quality crude palm oil has strong impact towards 3-MCPDE and glycidyl esters formation due to the intrinsic components present within. The findings are useful to palm oil refining industry in choosing raw materials as an input during the refining process.

CO2 capture performance of bi-functional activated bleaching earth modified with basic-alcoholic solution and functionalization with monoethanolamine: isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamics

CO2 capture performance of bifunctional activated bleaching earth (ABE) was investigated at atmospheric pressure. The sorbents were characterized by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Caron-Hydrogen-Nitrogen analysis (CHN), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). The CO2 capacity was enhanced via basic-modification and monoethanolamine (MEA) loading of the ABE sorbent to obtain a bifunctional surface property. Here, basic-modified calcined ABE with a 30wt.% MEA loading (SAB-30) showed the highest CO2 capture capacity, but this was decreased with excess MEA loading (>30wt.%). At a 10% (V/V) initial CO2 concentration feed, the maximum capacity of SAB-30 increased from 2.71mmol/g at 30°C (without adding moisture to the feed) to 3.3mmol/g at 50°C when adding 10% (V/V) moisture to the feed. Increasing the moisture concentration further reduced the maximum CO2 capacity due to the blocking effect of the excess moisture on the sorbent surface. However, SAB-30 could completely capture CO2 even in a 100% (V/V) initial CO2 concentration feed. A maximum CO2 capacity of 5.7mmol/g for SAB-30 was achieved at 30°C. Varying the ratio of sorbent weight to total flow rate of the gas stream had no discernible effect on the equilibrium CO2 capture capacity. Avrami's equation and Toth's isotherm model provided a good fitting for the data and suggested the presence of more than one reaction pathway in the CO2 capture process and the heterogeneous adsorption surface of SAB-30. Thermodynamics studies revealed that CO2 capture on the bifunctional SAB-30 is feasible, spontaneous and exothermic in nature.

Adsorption of emulsified oil from metalworking fluid on activated bleaching earth-chitosan-SDS composites: Optimization, kinetics, isotherms

The adsorption of emulsified oil from metalworking fluid (MWF) on activated bleaching earth (BE)-chitosan-sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) composites (BE/MCS) was investigated under a statistical design of experiments at a 95% confidence interval to identify the critical factors and to optimize the adsorption capacity. The BE/MCS adsorbents were characterized by means of X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller adsorption/desorption isotherms, contact angle analysis (sessile drop technique) and their zeta potential. From the results of a full 25 factorial design with three center points, the adsorbent weight and initial pH of the MWF had a significant antagonistic effect on the adsorption capacity while the initial MWF concentration and BE:chitosan:SDS weight ratio had a synergistic influence. Temperature factor has no discernible effect on the capacity. From the FCCC-RSM design, the optimal capacity range of 2840–2922.5 mg g−1 was achieved at sorbent weight of 1.6–1.9 g, pH of 5.5–6.5, initial MWF concentration of 52–55 g l−1 and BE:chitosan:SDS (w/w/w) ratio of 4.7:1:1–6.2:1:1. To test the validation and sensitivity of RSM model, the results showed that the estimated adsorption capacity was close to the experimental capacity within an error range of ±3%, suggesting that the RSM model was acceptable and satisfied. From three kinetics models (pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order model and Avrami's equation) and two adsorption isotherms (Langmuir model and Freundlich model), assessed using an error function (Err) and the coefficient of determination (R2), Avrami's equation and Freundlich isotherm model provided a good fitting for the data, suggesting the presence of more than one reaction pathway in the MWF adsorption process and the heterogeneous surface adsorption of the BC/ABE-5.5 composite.

Improvement of Palm Oil Biodiesel Filterability by Adsorption Methods

AbstractPalm oil biodiesel (POB) is characterized by a very high cold soak filtration time (CSFT), which places the acceptability of this biofuel at risk. Therefore, the effect of four adsorbents, namely diatomaceous earth, natural silicate (NS), neutral bleaching earth (NBE), and acid activated bleaching earth (AABE), at two levels of addition (1 and 5 wt%) or two temperatures (25 and 110 °C) on the precipitate content and CSFT of POB was investigated. The impact on total glycerin content, moisture content, and oxidative stability was also examined. All treatments significantly decreased the precipitate content, total glycerin content, and moisture content, but only treatments with NS, NBE, and AABE at 5 wt% and 25 °C achieved acceptable filterability. The OSI value was also decreased; however, it remained above the ASTM limit. Operational conditions of treatment with AABE were further optimized in a two‐factor, five‐level center composite design. The combination of 0.65 wt% AABE and 10 min at 25 °C decreased CSFT to below the ASTM limit. Lower adsorbent concentrations could be effective down to 0.44 wt%, given a corresponding increase in the contact time up to 30 min.

Changes in Quality Characteristics of Different Deep Frying Fats During Frying and Regeneration Potentials of Different Adsorbents in Wasted Frying Oils

Regeneration potentials of synthetic magnesium silicate, acid activated bleaching earth and natural bleaching earth for the fried soybean oil after progressive laboratory scale frying. The wasted palm olein and sunflower oils which were obtained from two different restaurants were investigated. As indication for development of deterioration reactions in oil during frying and regeneration potentials of so-called adsorbents, free fatty acid content (FFA), total polar material (TPM), dielectric constant (DC) and color measurement values (L, a and b) were measured. According to the results, synthetic magnesium silicate (SMS), acid activated bleaching earth (ABE) and natural bleaching earth (NBE) have different adsorbent characteristics that were significantly affected by the origin, physical and chemical properties and production method of that adsorbent. Laboratory scale frying operations were significantly increased FFA, TPM and DC as a result of thermal oxidation reaction. The usage of SMS in the wasted soybean oil reduced FFA content, TPM and DC values while lighten the color. Nevertheless, the reductions of these values were much more evident for in wasted sunflower oil from Restaurant A (WA) and wasted palm olein from Restaurant B (WB) when compared to wasted oil obtained from laboratory scale frying operations. All values were reduced with the use of adsorbents while L values of WB is increased with adsorbent usage. Generally SMS showed a higher reducing potential on FFA content, TPM and DC values which are considered as deterioration indices of oil quality during frying operation.

Adsorption of carotenes and phosphorus from palm oil onto acid activated bleaching earth: Equilibrium, kinetics and thermodynamics

In this work, the adsorption of carotenes and phosphorus from crude palm oil onto acid activated bleaching earth was investigated under bleaching conditions, i.e. high temperature (90, 105 and 115°C) and low pressure (less than 50mbar). Bleaching earth was added to palm oil in a range of 0.5–3.0wt%. Results presented in this work suggest that adsorption of β-carotene increases with temperature, while phosphorus adsorption was less affected. Both the pseudo-first-order and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model describe efficiently the β-carotene experimental data. Intra-particle diffusion is involved in β-carotene adsorption mechanism, although it is not the sole rate limiting step in the adsorption onto acid activated bleaching earth. Phosphorus adsorption was too fast resulting in a lack of kinetic data. The equilibrium data were described better by Langmuir and Freundlich models, for β-carotene and phosphorus, respectively. A multi-component Freundlich type isotherm was tested. Its competition coefficients were too low, and it assumed the same form as the monocomponent Freundlich. A thermodynamic study demonstrated that β-carotene and phosphorus adsorption is spontaneous, endothermic and an entropy-driven process. Isosteric heat values suggest that the interactions between adsorbate and adsorbent are heterogeneous.

Comparative study on the antioxidant and nitrite scavenging activity of fruiting body and mycelium extract from Pleurotus ferulae

We investigated the effects of the antioxidant and the nitrite scavenging activities of the extracts from Pleurotus ferulae fruiting body grown on the solid state using corn cob and activated bleaching earth (CCABE media) and its mycelium grown in the liquid state. The total phenol and polysaccharide concentrations in hot water extract of fruiting body were approximately 3.6- and 4.3-fold higher than those of the mycelium. Using the hot water extract of fruiting body, the maximum DPPH radical scavenging activity at 9 mg/mL, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity at 12mg/mL, reducing power at 12 mg/mL, and chelating ability at 12 mg/mL were obtained, 80.5%, 72.4%, 0.99 OD (700 nm), and 77.0%, respectively. However, in the case of hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity, the ethanol extract was the highest, 78.7% at 12 mg/mL. The maximum nitrite scavenging activity was obtained, 89.7% at 6 mg/mL of hot water extract from fruiting body. Hot water extracts were more effective than ethanol extracts in scavenging activity on DPPH radicals and hydroxyl radical scavenging, reducing power, and chelating activity of ferrous, whereas ethanol extracts were more effective in hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity as evidenced by their lower EC50 values. These results indicate that the hot water extract of P. ferulae fruiting body using CCABE media has good potential to be used as a source of materials or additives for oxidation suppressant in food, cosmetics and drug compositions.

Elimination of Glycidyl Palmitate in Diolein by Treatment with Activated Bleaching Earth

In this study, activated bleaching earth (ABE) was used to eliminate glycidyl esters from both triacyl- and diacylglycerol oils. To investigate the mechanism, glycerol dioleate containing glycidyl palmitate (GP) was treated with ABE and the fate of the GP was monitored by analyzing the feed, treated, and ABE-absorbed oils using a gas-liquid chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionized detector. GP was completely removed from both the treated and absorbed oils. This indicates that this treatment is useful for GE removal from diacylglycerol oil, although it was not achieved by absorption of GE on ABE but rather by modification of GP. The results of composition analysis demonstrate that GP is transformed to glycerol monopalmitate, glycerol palmitate oleate, and glycerol dipalmitate at a recovery rate of 99.1 ± 1.3 %. An increase in glycerol monooleate and trace amounts of free glycerol and fatty acids were also observed after treatment. The transformation is proposed to involve a ring-opening reaction of GP with water contained in the ABE and in the bulk oil followed by an interesterification reaction among the resultant monopalmitate and the glycerol dioleate of the bulk oil. All the generated compounds were simple acylglycerols and glycerol. Therefore, ABE treatment could be useful for GE removal during the manufacture of edible oils.

Study on the Decolorization of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil

Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental benefits, and the fact that it is derived from renewable resources. Recently, the acidic oil and waste cooking oil were the main resources for the biodiesel production, due to the economical and environmental consideration. However, the product obtained from the transesterification with dark colour. Activated carbon (ACN), activated clay (ACY), activated bleaching earth (ABE), attapulgite (ATE) were employed to refine the undecolored biodiesel. Among all studied decolorants, activated clay exhibited higher activity and more economically competitive. In addition, decoloring process of undecolored biodiesel by activated clay was performed; the optimum conditions were obtained as decoloring temperature 60°C, time 60 min and dosage of activated clay 3 wt. % at atmospheric pressure. Besides, the water content of biodiesel should be below 1 wt. % while ACY was used as decolorant. This paper compared contents and features of decolorization by ACY and rectification under vacuum. The results indicated that higher decolorization ratio(DR) and better quality product will be achieved through rectification, while the decolorization by ACY method should be an proper choice if the biodiesel solded by mixing with diesel fuel.

Conversion of Residual Vegetable Oil on Waste Activated Bleaching Earth to Biodiesel Fuel

Conversion of Residual Vegetable Oil on Waste Activated Bleaching Earth to Biodiesel Fuel

Impact of Potato Chips Frying on the Quality Characteristics of Rapeseed Oil

The quality of rapeseed oil, as affected by potato chips frying at 180°C for 14 h, was investigated. The purpose of the study was to find out the quality deterioration of rapeseed oil with respect to time as affected by potato chips frying and to find the treatment that can be used for quality control. The parameters evaluated were refractive index, color, total polar material, free fatty acids, iodine value and peroxide value. There was a gradual increase in refractive index and color with time of frying which was found to be significant (P < 0.05) in the latter. Iodine value decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with time of frying. Peroxide value increased significantly (P < 0.05) with time of frying. After 14 h of frying, the total polar materials were 20.7 percent, indicating the need for replenishment or refinement of rapeseed oil. The refinement condition was realized when the excessive sodium silicate and activated bleaching earth added was 9 percent, the weigh ratio of excessive sodium silicate to activated bleaching earth was 1:4, the reaction temperature was 90°C, the reaction time was 35 min, and the rate of refining was 86.3 percent. It was found a new way to recover the frying oil.

The Utilization of Waste Activated Bleaching Earth in Biodiesel Production: Optimization by Response Surface Methodology

The waste oil adsorbed on activated bleaching earth was evaluated as a raw material for biodiesel production. Alcoholysis reactions of waste oil extracted from activated bleaching earth using n-hexane were conducted by NaOH as catalysts. The reactions were performed at a temperature range from 50 to 60°C with catalyst (1–2% based on oil weight) at oil:alcohol molar ratios of 1:5–1:7. Based on optimization by response surface methodology, the critical alcoholysis conditions for 30 min reaction time giving maximum 85% methyl ester content were determined as follows: temperature 57.3°C, catalyst 2.1% (based on oil weight), and oil/methanol molar ratio 1/6.3.

Enhancement of lipase catalyzed-fatty acid methyl esters production from waste activated bleaching earth by nullification of lipase inhibitors

This study sought to identify inhibitory factors of lipase catalyzed-fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) production from waste activated bleaching earth (wABE). During the vegetable oil refinery process, activated bleaching earth (ABE) is used for removing the impure compounds, but adsorbs vegetable oil up to 35–40% as on a weight basis, and then the wABE is discarded as waste material. The impurities were extracted from the wABE with methanol and evaluated by infra-red (IR) spectroscopy, which revealed that some were chlorophyll-plant pigments. The chlorophylls inhibited the lipase during FAME conversion from wABE. The inhibition by a mixture of chlorophyll a and b was found to be competitive. The inhibition of the enzymatic hydrolysis of waste vegetable oil contained in wABE by chlorophyll a alone was competitive, while the inhibition by chlorophyll b alone was non-competitive. Furthermore, the addition of a small amount of alkali nullified this inhibitory effect and accelerated the FAME production rate. When 0.9% KOH (w/w wABE) was added to the transesterification reaction with only 0.05% lipase (w/w wABE), the maximum FAME production rate improved 120-fold, as compared to that without the addition of KOH. The alkali-combined lipase significantly enhanced the FAME production rate from wABE, in spite of the presence of the plant pigments, and even when a lower amount of lipase was used as a catalyst.

Increased riboflavin production from activated bleaching earth by a mutant strain of Ashbya gossypii

The production of riboflavin from vegetable oil was increased using a mutant strain of Ashbya gossypii. This mutant was generated by treating the wild-type strain with N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG). Riboflavin production was 10-fold higher in the mutant compared to the wild-type strain. The specific intracellular catalase activity after 3 d of culture was 6-fold higher in the mutant than in the wild-type strain. For the mutant, riboflavin production in the presence of 40 mM hydrogen peroxide was 16% less than that in the absence of hydrogen peroxide, whereas it was 56% less for the wild-type strain. The isocitrate lyase (ICL) activity of the mutant was 0.26 mU/mg of protein during the active riboflavin production phase, which was 2.6-fold higher than the wild-type strain. These data indicate that the mutant utilizes the carbon flux from the TCA cycle to the glyoxylate cycle more efficiently than the wild-type strain, resulting in enhanced riboflavin production. This novel mutant has the potential to be of use for industrial-scale riboflavin production from waste-activated bleaching earth (ABE), thereby transforming a useless material into a valuable bioproduct.