Acquisition Research Research Articles

Third language phonological acquisition: Understanding sound structure in a multilingual world

AbstractThe field of third language acquisition has gathered increased attention over the last three decades. However, phonological acquisition in an L3 is still relatively understudied within the field, despite there likely being over a billion people regularly using an L3 worldwide. In this paper, we review experimental and theoretical studies of sequential L3 acquisition to date and aim to give implications for future L3 phonological acquisition research, laying the groundwork for advances in this area. According to the reviewed studies, it is necessary to adapt previous second language phonology models (i.e. SLM/SLM‐r, PAM/PAM‐L2, L2LP) into future L3 phonological research. Additionally, it is essential to expand the research scope and time scale to reflect linguistic diversity, age and education background of participants, and the processes of learning.

A comparative study of frequency effect on acquisition of grammar and meaning of words between Chinese and foreign learners of English language.

Frequency effect on vocabulary acquisition has been widely investigated in second language acquisition (SLA) research, whereas comparative studies of vocabulary acquisition of learners from different language types, such as hieroglyphic writing and alphabetic writing, are still rarely found. This type of studies could be of great significance in exploring some unique characteristics of how second language learners of native languages of different writing perceive and acquire second language. Using artificial words of alphabetic writing and low-frequency English words as experimental materials, this study aims to compare the effect of frequency on the acquisition of grammar and meaning of alphabetic words between Chinese learners of the hieroglyphic native language and foreign learners of alphabetic native languages. Specifically, the study intends to find out whether frequency effect plays the key role in language acquisition; to what extent frequency effect affects language acquisition; and whether there are any differences between learners of different language types for vocabulary acquisition in terms of frequency effect. The results show that Chinese and foreign learners of English language have no significant differences as a whole in terms of type of languages affecting the acquisition of grammar and meaning of artificial words and English words, indicating the difference in the type of mother tongue might not be the factor causing differences on grammar and meaning acquisition of vocabulary. Learner types, language types, frequency and part of speech of a word have interaction effect toward the acquisition of grammar and meaning of a word. However, exposure frequency of vocabulary plays the determining role in the acquisition of grammar and meaning of words.

The Evolution of Science in Second Language Acquisition Research: A Commentary on "The Neurocognitive Underpinnings of Second Language Processing: Knowledge Gains From the Past and Future Outlook".

The Evolution of Science in Second Language Acquisition Research: A Commentary on "The Neurocognitive Underpinnings of Second Language Processing: Knowledge Gains From the Past and Future Outlook".

Collecting Big Data Through Citizen Science: Gamification and Game-based Approaches to Data Collection in Applied Linguistics

Abstract Gamification of behavioral experiments has been applied successfully to research in a number of disciplines, including linguistics. We believe that these methods have been underutilized in applied linguistics, in particular second-language acquisition research. The incorporation of games and gaming elements (gamification) in behavioral experiments has been shown to mitigate many of the practical constraints characteristic of lab settings, such as limited recruitment or only achieving small-scale data. However, such constraints are no longer an issue with gamified and game-based experiments, and as a result, data collection can occur remotely with greater ease and on a much wider scale, yielding data that are ecologically valid and robust. These methods enable the collection of data that are comparable in quality to the data collected in more traditional settings while engaging far more diverse participants with different language backgrounds that are more representative of the greater population. We highlight three successful applications of using games and gamification with applied linguistic experiments to illustrate the effectiveness of such approaches in a greater effort to invite other applied linguists to do the same.

Feature Acquisition: Object Drop in L2 Spanish

Abstract This paper investigates the L2 acquisition of Spanish object drop by advanced learners whose L1s are English and Brazilian Portuguese, in order to assess effects on their knowledge of the interpretable and uninterpretable features conditioning the realization of object drop in their L2 Spanish. Object drop in Spanish is subject to semantic restrictions related to definiteness and specificity, as well as syntactic restrictions related to subjacency. Current debates about second language acquisition (SLA) have led to different hypotheses. On the one hand, the Interpretability Hypothesis/IH (Hawkins, Roger & Hajime Hattori. 2006. Interpretation of English multiple wh-questions by Japanese speakers: A missing uninterpretable feature account. Second Language Research 22. 269–301) claims that uninterpretable features will not be completely acquired. On the other hand, the Feature Reassembly Hypothesis/FRH (Hwang, Sun Hee & Donna Lardiere. 2013. Plural-marking in L2 Korean: A feature-based approach. Second Language Research 29. 57–86; Lardiere, Donna. 2009. Some thoughts on the contrastive analysis of features in second language acquisition. Second Language Research 25. 173–227) does not distinguish between interpretable and uninterpretable features for the purposes of SLA, arguing that the difficulty of the acquisition task hinges on the required amount of feature reassembly from the L1 to the L2 lexicon. Finally, the Full Transfer/Full Access (FT/FA) (Schwartz, Bonnie & Rex Sprouse. 1996. L2 cognitive states and the Full Transfer/Full Access model. Second Language Research 12. 40–72; Schwartz, Bonnie & Rex Sprouse. 2000. When syntactic theories evolve: Consequences for L2 acquisition research. In John Archibald (ed.), Second language acquisition and linguistic theory, 156–186. Malden, MA: Blackwell; White, Lydia. 2003. Second language acquisition and universal grammar. New York: Cambridge University Press) hypothesis treats SLA as equivalent to first-language acquisition, in terms of the potential for ultimate attainment. Both the FT/FA and the FRH are in principle compatible with full attainment in L2 acquisition. To assess these hypotheses, this study tests the L2 acquisition of the semantic and syntactic restrictions on Spanish object drop by learners whose L1 either lacks widespread object drop (English), or has regular object drop but realizes it differently from Spanish (Brazilian Portuguese). The Full Transfer/Full Access hypothesis seems to best explain the results of the two experiments.

Cognitive individual differences in the process and product of L2 writing

AbstractThis paper examines how research in second language acquisition has approached the study of cognitive individual differences in the process and product of L2 writing from a theoretical and empirical perspective, paying special attention to the three empirical studies included in this special issue. The paper is divided into three sections. The first section examines the cognitive abilities that have been investigated in L2 writing research, among which working memory stands out as the most widely studied. The second section synthesizes the findings reported by the empirical studies in this issue in relation to the role of working memory in L2 writing behaviors and outcomes. The last section suggests future lines of research that can broaden the current scope of research on writing and cognitive individual differences, mostly centered on the components of the working memory system. This research has important theoretical implications, as little is known about how different cognitive individual differences are implicated in writing, as well as pedagogical implications, as the findings can inform about optimal performance and learning conditions for learners with diverse cognitive ability profiles.

The role of cognitive factors in second language writing and writing to learn a second language

AbstractThis article revisits the role of cognitive individual differences in creating synergies between second language (L2) writing and second language acquisition research that were proposed by Kormos (2012). It takes stock of the advances in research findings, in the past decade, on the role of working memory and language learning aptitude in L2 writing processes and performance. The article offers an overview of how cognitive factors can mediate learning gains when L2 users engage in writing. Using theoretical accounts of cognitive individual differences, the article discusses how the characteristics of writing tasks can interact with individual variation in cognitive functioning. The article concludes by proposing a Task-Mediated Cognitive Model of L2 Writing and Writing to Learn that describes the role of cognitive factors in L2 writing processes and in learning through writing, and an outline of a research agenda for future studies.

BS English Students' Lexical Assimilation Errors and Remedial Measures

Vocabulary learning has gained much interest in second language acquisition research. Communication hinges on instinctive and precise word recognition skills, so a learner needs to be equipped with adequate vocabulary knowledge for fluency. Yet, this process of gaining fluency becomes suffocating for EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners when they come across unknown words and this often results in giving up reading or making zero effort to understand the meaning of a text.This shows that learners lack the ability to gain knowledge of handling unknown words. For this purpose, various kinds of vocabulary tests have been constructed through time. This study aims to get together the notion of errors in vocabulary assimilation and use, the development of vocabulary assessment and the incorporation of some remedial measures that can help Pakistani BS learners improve their English lexical assimilation.

ADAPTATION AND INITIAL VALIDATION OF THE L2-GRIT SCALE IN TURKISH

Even though grit in language education, as an individual difference among learners, has recently been a very popular field in second language acquisition research, a few language-specific tools rather than domain-general ones to measure this individual difference have only been developed very recently. To add, adapted versions of these tools are needed to examine this notion across cultures and contexts. This study presents psychometric analyses of an adapted version of a language-specific grit scale in the Turkish language: the L2-Grit Scale in Turkish. An adapted scale was translated and administered to 284 university students studying at various universities across Turkey and learning English as a foreign language. Statistical analyses such as item, reliability, and exploratory factor analyses were run. The results showed that the L2-Grit Scale in Turkish is a highly reliable and internally consistent tool with a two-factor solution, and it can not only inform further grit research in the Turkish context but also contribute to this globally bourgeoning field.

Techniques for Increasing Educational Motivation and the Need to Assess Students' Knowledge: The Effectiveness of Educational Digital Games in Learning English Grammatical Material.

Educational digital games can be an effective way to teach English grammatical material because they provide an interactive and engaging learning experience. The purpose of this study is to clarify how playing digital games affects students' motivation and performance in university-level English grammar classes. [The North-Eastern Federal Institute of MK Ammosova in Neryungri] used a quasi-experimental study, testing, respondent survey, and statistical data analysis method for this purpose. 114 Fourth-year students were the participants, and they were split into the experimental and control groups at random. Students in the experimental group were given a learning format that included the use of digital games designed to teach English grammar (Quizlet and Kahoot!). The traditional teaching strategies offered by the university curriculum were used with the students in the control group (written assignments, textbooks, presentations, and tests). The post-test revealed that the control group's results were nearly identical to those of the pre-test. The students in the experimental group performed better. The proportion of students scoring "poor" fell from 30 to 10%, while the proportion scoring "moderate" fell from 42 to 27%. The "good" score increased from 17 to 40%, and the "excellent" score increased from 11 to 23%. These results suggest that digital games are a more productive and effective tool for teaching English grammar than traditional games. Students were also highly motivated, as they found digital games to be both entertaining and effective for language acquisition. Academic performance did not significantly improve. Based on this, future research might create electives or courses that teach English grammar more successfully using gamification techniques. These results can also be used to guide future research in education, language acquisition, and modern technology.

Current perspectives on Learner Corpus Research

Learner Corpus Research (LCR) is a relative newcomer to the scene of research paradigms and methodologies within applied linguistics and second language acquisition (SLA) research. In addition to other types of data that have traditionally been used in SLA research, learner corpora provide large-scale principled collections of authentic, continuous and contextualized language use by foreign/second language (L2) learners that are stored in electronic format. They enable the systematic and (semi-)automatic extraction, visualization and analysis of large amounts of learner data in a way that was not possible before. Access to and analysis of learner corpus data is greatly facilitated by the digital medium, and the sheer quantity of data can help to explore SLA phenomena from non-experimental perspectives (Callies 2015). Although the majority of learner corpora may appear relatively small in size when compared to large reference corpora of several major European languages that comprise billions of words of text, they contain datasets for general use that are still many times larger than the oftentimes narrow(er) datasets collected in SLA research through more strictly controlled elicitation techniques. LCR as a field only emerged and became visible at the turn of the 1990s in the context of the popularization of corpus linguistics at large, but has rapidly evolved and grown in scope and sophistication over the past three to four decades. It now bears all signs of an established discipline: it has an academic journal, the International Journal of Learner Corpus Research, that has been publishing studies in LCR since 2013; two handbooks that survey the field and its links to the major neighbouring disciplines of corpus linguistics, SLA and language teaching (Granger, Gilquin and Meunier, eds., 2015; Tracy-Ventura and Paquot, eds., 2021); and a biennial, international conference that has been organised since 2011 under the aegis of the field’s own professional organisation, the Learner Corpus Association, officially founded in 2013. Because of its origin, LCR has initially been a relatively European-centred research field but has in the meantime made significant inroads into North America, South Africa (van Rooy 2019) and the Asia-Pacific region (Jung 2022). It is by now a vibrant and growing international community. This paper provides some perspectives on recent and current achievements and developments in the field, highlights several new trends and initiatives, but also discusses some challenges. The focus will be on LCR and the study of learner English.

Benefitting from Acquisition Experience During Integration: The Moderating Effect of Strategic M&A Intent

AbstractResearch suggests that M&A performance improves through routinization and/or codified experience. Traditionally, acquisition research has drawn a direct link between the two knowledge accumulation mechanisms and acquisition performance. Yet, how lessons learned are captured and applied in subsequent events remains largely unanswered. We argue that routinization and codification may both result in standardized acquisition integration approaches that promise greater efficiency. Our results show that experience can be captured and applied through standardized acquisition integration approaches. Importantly, our findings show that a strategic M&A intent influences the relationships between routinization and codified experience, and standardized acquisition integration approaches. We find that a strong strategic M&A intent strengthens the relationship between codification and standardization, but it weakens the relationship between routinization and standardization. We test our hypotheses with a combination of primary survey and secondary data to offer managerial and research insights. By combining three pertinent M&A literature streams – acquisition experience, acquisition integration and acquisition intent – we shed light on the importance of organizational learning and strategic direction on acquisition performance.

Linear Dependency Segments in Foreign Language Acquisition: Syntactic Complexity Analysis in Czech Learners’ Texts

Abstract The paper discusses a new way to measure syntactic complexity in foreign language acquisition. It is based on a recently proposed syntactic unit called linear dependency segment (LDS), the longest possible sequence of words belonging to the same clause where all linear neighbours are also syntactic neighbours. The dataset comprises 5,721 Czech texts from the CzeSL-SGT learner corpus covering five CEFR proficiency levels (A1–C1). The study covers two analyses. First, the development of the average clause length in terms of LDS and the average LDS length in the number of words across the latter language proficiency levels. Second, we consider the differences between Slavic and non-Slavic speakers. The results show an increasing tendency of the average clause length measured in LDS while the average clause length measured in words is decreasing. Results also show statistically significant differences between Slavic and non-Slavic speakers in most cases. Our results indicate that using LDS may be a useful unit of syntactic complexity measure in foreign language acquisition research.

Defragmenting Learning.

In the 1990s, language acquisition researchers and theoretical linguists developed an interest in learning mechanisms, and learning theorists rediscovered the verbal learning tradition. Nonetheless, learning theory and language acquisition continued to develop largely independently, which has stymied progress in both fields. However, exciting progress is happening in applying learning theory to language, and, more recently, in using language learning data to advance domain-general learning theory. These developments raise hopes for a bidirectional flow of information between the fields. The importance of language data for learning theory and of learning theory for understanding language is briefly discussed.

A Review of Structural Priming

With the development of second language acquisition research involving more and more disciplines, structural priming, as an experimental paradigm, can study the syntactic representation, language comprehension and production from the perspective of psychology. And then how all these processes in the language mechanism, a “black box” in the human brain is represented and processed can be attained. Therefore, the research of structural priming is of great significance to the study of both native language and second language, and even contributes to patients with aphasia. This review will examine how structural priming has been used to investigate the representation, comprehension and production of syntactic structures.

Pavlovian learning and conditioned reinforcement.

Conditioned reinforcers are widely used in applied behavior analysis. Basic research evidence reveals that Pavlovian learning plays an important role in the acquisition and efficacy of new conditioned-reinforcer functions. Thus, a better understanding of Pavlovian principles holds the promise of improving the efficacy of conditioned reinforcement in applied research and practice. This paper surveys how (and if) Pavlovian principles are presented in behavior-analytic textbooks; imprecisions and knowledge gaps within contemporary Pavlovian empirical findings are highlighted. Thereafter, six practical principles of Pavlovian conditioning are presented along with empirical support and knowledge gaps that should be filled by applied and translational behavior-analytic researchers. Innovative applications of these principles are outlined for research in language acquisition, token reinforcement, and self-control.

Realistic and broad-scope learning simulations: first results and challenges.

There is a current 'theory crisis' in language acquisition research, resulting from fragmentation both at the level of the approaches and the linguistic level studied. We identify a need for integrative approaches that go beyond these limitations, and propose to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of current theoretical approaches of language acquisition. In particular, we advocate that language learning simulations, if they integrate realistic input and multiple levels of language, have the potential to contribute significantly to our understanding of language acquisition. We then review recent results obtained through such language learning simulations. Finally, we propose some guidelines for the community to build better simulations.

Individual differences in L1 attainment and language aptitude predict L2 achievement in instructed language learners

AbstractAlthough most children learn to communicate in their first language (L1), there is normal and expected variation in their rate of acquisition across all components of the language system. Until recently, most second language acquisition and second language (L2) researchers have assumed that individual differences (IDs) in L1 acquisition are small and irrelevant to IDs in L2 acquisition. However, growing evidence has found strong relationships between IDs in L1 attainment and ultimate L2 achievement. In this longitudinal study, US secondary students were administered measures of L1 written and oral achievement, L1 cognitive processing, and L2 aptitude, then followed over 3 years of Spanish instruction and administered standardized measures of L2 literacy and oral proficiency at the end of each year. Hierarchical regressions followed by regression commonality analysis showed that IDs in L1 achievement alone (reading, writing, vocabulary, and print exposure) accounted for substantial unique variance in L2 reading, writing, listening comprehension, and oral proficiency, while L2 aptitude accounted for additional unique variance at the end of each year. A new finding showed that variance accounted for by L1 skills increased from first to second to third year. Results lend additional support to the conclusion of strong L1–L2 relationships between IDs in L1 attainment and IDs in L2 achievement.

Towards a more inclusive notion of values in acquisition research

Acquisition research is intensely concerned with how acquisitions affect economic value, primarily looking at shareholder value, while overlooking or ascribing other values a subordinate role. We argue that this is unnecessarily restrictive and leaves out important values in acquisitions. To remedy this state of affairs, we critically engage with the notion of value in acquisitions with the aim of enriching acquisition research by recognizing a multitude of values present in acquisitions but largely unrecognized as such in research. Arguing value is an umbrella construct, we adopt a stakeholder approach and conduct a problematizing review focusing on key studies of economic and non-economic values in acquisitions, also enriched with other acquisition and business literature. Apart from challenging the underpinning assumptions of the dominating view of value denoting acquiring shareholders’ financial wealth, we identify non-economic marginalized values that are only rarely studied, including justice or gender equality, and pertinent neglected values, including the natural environment. We propose a research agenda around a broader range of dynamic, multifaceted values.

A Study of Native Chinese Speakers Learning Indo-european Languages: The Case of English and Russian

Language proximity can have different degrees of influence on trilingual acquisition. For example, Japanese has a strong influence on Chinese, while English has a strong influence on Russian. This study used interviews and corpus analysis to examine learners with different levels of English as a second foreign language and Russian as a third foreign language. It was found that when native Chinese speakers learn a language belonging to the Indo-European family, the influence of English on Russian learning is greater than that of native Chinese, and the specific influence of English will be different at different stages. Based on the study some suggestions are also made for trilingual teaching. Considering that the majority of Chinese language learners today have a certain level of proficiency of English, it is significant to conduct the research of L3 learners who is native Chinese and whose L2 is English. Through interviewing the subjects and analysing their compositions, the researchers find that English as L2 both facilitates and hinders L3 acquisition. In particular, intermediate L3 learners are most likely to be influenced by L2, and conversely, advanced L3 learners are rarely influenced by their L2 English. L3 acquisition is more likely to be influenced by L2 when L3 and L2 are in a closer linguistic distance than L3 and L1. This study contributes to multilingual acquisition research and provides effective suggestions for multilingual teaching strategy.