Acousto-optic Tunable Filter Research Articles

NOMAD spectrometer on the ExoMars trace gas orbiter mission: part 1--design, manufacturing and testing of the infrared channels.

NOMAD is a spectrometer suite on board ESA's ExoMars trace gas orbiter due for launch in January 2016. NOMAD consists of two infrared channels and one ultraviolet and visible channel allowing the instrument to perform observations quasi-constantly, by taking nadir measurements at dayside and nightside, and during solar occultations. In this paper, the design, manufacturing, and testing of the two infrared channels are described. We focus upon the optical working principle in these channels, where an echelle grating, used as a diffractive element, is combined with an acousto-optical tunable filter, used as a diffraction order sorter.

Electronically tuned Cr:ZnSe laser pumped with Q-switched Tm:YAG laser.

We demonstrated a Q-switched, Tm:YAG-laser-pumped electronically tuned Cr:ZnSe laser, which was equipped with an acousto-optic tunable filter as a wavelength-tuning element. A tuning range from 2.17 to 2.71 μm and a maximum output energy of 7.9 mJ at 2.41 μm were realized. The energy conversion efficiency reached 34.1% at 2.41 μm. In addition, the Cr:ZnSe laser produced a high-quality beam in the TEM(00) mode.

Cosine apodization of dual-resonance all-fiber acousto-optic tunable filters.

We experimentally demonstrate a novel cosine apodization technique for dual-resonance all-fiber acoustic-optic tunable filter. The technique is based on a hybrid control of input acoustic polarization state and circumferential fiber twist. We will show that intrinsic sidelobe spectra occurring between dual filtering bands are successfully suppressed through our approach, which will be also theoretically confirmed via our analytical and numerical studies. The results illustrate that the spectral positions of each resonance are tuned linearly and continuously by the fiber twist, and that overall sidelobe spectra between two resonances are suppressed regardless of fiber twist angle. The proposed scheme is useful to minimize cross talk between adjacent wavelength channels in optical sensor systems. We highlight that our approach is directly applicable to low-noise matched filtering.

Acousto-optical tunable filter for combined wideband, spectral, and optical coherence microscopy.

A multimodal technique for inspection of microscopic objects by means of wideband optical microscopy, spectral microscopy, and optical coherence microscopy is described, implemented, and tested. The key feature is the spectral selection of light in the output arm of an interferometer with use of the specialized imaging acousto-optical tunable filter. In this filter, two interfering optical beams are diffracted via the same ultrasound wave without destruction of interference image structure. The basic requirements for the acousto-optical tunable filter are defined, and mathematical formulas for calculation of its parameters are derived. Theoretical estimation of the achievable accuracy of the 3D image reconstruction is presented and experimental proofs are given. It is demonstrated that spectral imaging can also be accompanied by measurement of the quantitative reflectance spectra. Examples of inspection of optically transparent and nontransparent samples demonstrate the applicability of the technique.

OFT sectorization approach to analysis of optical scattering in mercurous chloride single crystals

This paper is devoted to the application of the optical Fourier transform (OFT) for the study and evaluation of optical scattering in the latest generation of calomel single crystals ready for application in several possible devices such as IR polarizers and acoustooptic tunable filters (AOTF). There are numerous effects that are responsible for the scattering of optical wave passing through the crystal sample volume and surface layers because they affect the optical crystal quality. The scattering level is a crucial and limiting parameter in many technical applications of the evaluated crystal. The proposed approach is based upon the high dynamic range optical FT configuration, creating the amplitude spectrum in the focal plane and its spatial angular distribution analysis based on the spectrum sectorization. The optical scattering pattern was tested in nine locations within each crystal sample volume and on numerous crystal samples. The experimental results are presented and discussed.

Rigorous coupled wave analysis of acousto-optics with relativistic considerations.

A relativistic analysis of acousto-optics is presented, and a rigorous coupled wave analysis is generalized for the diffraction of the acousto-optical effect. An acoustic wave generates a grating with temporally and spatially modulated permittivity, hindering direct applications of the rigorous coupled wave analysis for the acousto-optical effect. In a reference frame which moves with the acoustic wave, the grating is static, the medium moves, and the coupled wave equations for the static grating may be derived. Floquet's theorem is then applied to cast these equations into an eigenproblem. Using a Lorentz transformation, the electromagnetic fields in the grating region are transformed to the lab frame where the medium is at rest, and relativistic Doppler frequency shifts are introduced into various diffraction orders. In the lab frame, the boundary conditions are considered and the diffraction efficiencies of various orders are determined. This method is rigorous and general, and the plane waves in the resulting expansion satisfy the dispersion relation of the medium and are propagation modes. Properties of various Bragg diffractions are results, rather than preconditions, of this method. Simulations of an acousto-optical tunable filter made by paratellurite, TeO(2), are given as examples.

Semiconductor lasers with a continuous tuning range above in the nearest IR spectral region

We have developed two new types of lasers based on quantum-confined semiconductor optical amplifiers with an acousto-optic tunable filter in an external fibre ring cavity. The lasers offer continuous wavelength tuning ranges from 780 to 885 and from 880 to of cw output power, and a tuning rate up to at an instantaneous spectral linewidth less than .

Twisted optical-fiber-based acousto-optic tunable filter controlled by the flexural acoustic polarization

The spectral characteristics of twisted fiber-based acousto-optic filters are theoretically investigated. The influences of three types of flexural acoustic polarization states — linear, circular, and elliptical polarizations — on filter spectra are studied under realistic experimental conditions: a fiber length of 5 – 20 cm and a circumferential fiber twist angle of 80 nm for a twist angle of 12π. We will describe how the transmission of each resonance peak can also be selectively tuned by adjusting the ellipticity of the input acoustic polarization from linear to circular. The results illustrate that our approach exploiting a combination of the fiber twist and acoustic polarization management offers an excellent route to the spectral shaping of all-fiber acousto-optic devices in that the transmission of multiple resonances, as well as their spectral positions, are readily and individually controllable in a single device configuration. In addition, we also propose a novel cosine apodization method to suppress the undesirable sidelobe spectra occurring between the dual resonance peaks. The technique is based on a cosine modulation of the AO coupling strength along the fiber, which is achieved by using a combination of the fiber’s circumferential twist and the linear acoustic polarization. The proposed scheme is useful to minimize the crosstalk occurring between adjacent resonance peaks. We highlight that our approach is directly applicable to matched filtering as robust, adaptable, stable, and versatile optical filters.

RF-driving of acoustic-optical tunable filters; design, realization and qualification of analog and digital modules for ESA

The ALTIUS-instrument is a three-channel spectral imager, measuring in the ultraviolet, visible and near infrared wavelength domains, that is bound to fly aboard a PROBA-satellite. The goal of the ALTIUS-instrument is to make hyper spectral images of the limb of the earth. In each of ALTIUS' three channels an AOTF (Acousto-Optical Tunable Filter) will be used. For each channel an RF-generator will be developed and subjected to a suite of environmental tests such as thermal-vacuum, vibration, radiation, shock and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC).For the AOTF RF-generator different solutions are possible. Currently the design of an analog Hilbert transform and a high frequency phase-locked loop (PLL) are proposed as possible solutions. The choice of components, the PCB-design and the manufacturing of both designs has to be done in accordance to space qualified standards. This limits the choice of design and lifts the design challenge to a higher level. Because of the limited choice of space qualified components, general commercial approaches are not possible. For this reason specific designs have to be investigated and research has to be done to select the appropriate solution.

Novel time-of-flight fiber dispersion measurement technique using supercontinuum light sources and acousto-optical tunable filters.

Long-distance fiber links require precise knowledge of fiber dispersion characteristics. Similar dispersion characteristics are necessary for supercontinuum broadband laser absorption spectroscopy (SCLAS) to allow proper data evaluation and species concentration determination, as well as numerous other applications. In this work, a time-of-flight approach to measuring the dispersion characteristic of fibers with supercontinuum laser light sources (SCLs) and acousto-optical tunable filters (AOTFs) is presented. Broadband emission of the SCL is filtered with a narrowband AOTF and dispersed in time by the fiber under test. By using the wavelength-specific delay, the dispersion characteristic can be calculated. The technique is especially suited for longer fibers and was verified against a state-of-the-art phase-shift-based dispersion measurement system. Advantages of the new approach include solely utilizing SCLAS system components, as well as a high level of automation and wide spectral coverage, ranging from 1100 to 1700nm in a single measurement setup.

Influence of driving power on the performance of UV KDP-based acousto-optical tunable filters

Spectral imaging is a powerful tool for remote sensing applications. Among other valuable options, acousto-optical tunable filters (AOTF) offer interesting properties to this class of instruments. When sensitivity to ultra-violet (UV) light is required, KH2PO4 crystal (KDP) is a good choice for the acousto-optic (AO) interaction medium as its AO figure of merit is relatively large compared to other materials transparent in UV. However, it generally requires more acoustic power than well-known TeO2-based devices to achieve the highest diffraction efficiency. We report on measurements performed with a KDP-based AOTF (9-cut) driven with RF signals up to 3 W. It has been found that owing to various effects (Joules, acoustic wave attenuation,…) the heating of the crystal by a few degrees yields severe alteration of the AOTF spectral transmission function (STF): shift of the central wavelength, increase of the bandwidth and decrease of the peak filter efficiency have been observed. These three effects degrade the AOTF overall performance if not taken into account. This paper presents the experimental evidences and shows how a temperature-dependent AOTF model allows to derive the inner temperature of the device. Possible reasons for the flattening of the STF are also discussed.

Dual-color three-dimensional STED microscopy with a single high-repetition-rate laser.

We describe a dual-color three-dimensional stimulated emission depletion (3D-STED) microscopy employing a single laser source with a repetition rate of 80 MHz. Multiple excitation pulses synchronized with a STED pulse were generated by a photonic crystal fiber, and the desired wavelengths were selected by an acousto-optic tunable filter with high spectral purity. Selective excitation at different wavelengths permits simultaneous imaging of two fluorescent markers at a nanoscale resolution in three dimensions.

Photoelastic properties of NaBi(MoO4)2 crystals.

In this work we present the results of comprehensive studies of the piezo-optic and elasto-optic effects in NaBi(MoO4)2 crystals. The full matrices of the piezo-optic and elasto-optic coefficients for the NaBi(MoO4)2 crystals are obtained for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. The acousto-optic effect in the NaBi(MoO4)2 is analyzed for the case of interactions of optical waves with the slowest acoustic waves. It is shown that the crystals under analysis can be efficiently used as working elements for the collinear acousto-optic tunable filters.

Characterization of an Acousto-optic tunable filter for development of a near-IR spectrometer for planetary science

The development of a spectrometer is being carried out in the Near-Infrared (NIR) wavelength range of 1.0–1.7 μm using an Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter (AOTF). The AOTF is based on Tellurium-di-oxide (TeO2) crystal that acts as a dispersing medium and is driven by an external Radio Frequency (RF) signal. The characterization of AOTF is based on the wavelength-tuning frequency relation, spectral bandwidth as a function of wavelength through AOTF Transfer Function (Sinc2), their dependence on the angular aperture and the peak diffraction efficiency of the AOTF. To demonstrate the full scanning capability of the AOTF in the wavelength range of 1.0–1.7 μm, Argon (Ar) and Krypton (Kr) line sources are used. The overall functionality of the spectrometer using the wavelength selection capability of AOTF is demonstrated by scanning the RF in the NIR band to detect water vapour absorption signatures in the Earth's atmosphere. This spectrometer is being designed for future interplanetary missions of ISRO with an aim to study the atmospheres of planets such as Mars or Venus.

OSSB modulation of tunable optical carrier-to-sideband ratio with FBG-based acousto-optic tunable filter

Abstract In this paper, we experimentally fabricated a fiber Bragg grating based acousto-optic tunable filter (FBG-AOTF) and illustrated its further application in OSSB modulation with continuously tunable optical carrier-to-sideband ratio (OCSR). Based on the numerical results, a conclusion can be drawn that the OCSR can be continuously tuned from −20.12 dB to 29.04 dB under certain modulation index of the modulator and certain modulation depth of FBG-AOTF refractive index. Under certain modulation index of the modulator, with the change of modulation depth of FBG-AOTF refractive index, the range of the OCSR tunability can be enlarged. The FBG-AOTF with a specific spectrum was then applied in an OSSB modulation scheme with tunable OCSR. By simply adjusting the acoustically induced strain, the OCSR can be continuously tuned from 13.96 dB to 0.47 dB which is very close to the optimum value and can improve the receiver sensitivity by around 3.7 dB.

Acousto-Optic Tunable Filters (AOTFs) Optimised for Operation in the 2-4μm region

Acousto-Optic Tunable Filters (AOTFs) are electronically-controlled bandpass optical filters. They are often preferred in applications in spectroscopy where their agility and rapid random-access tuning can be deployed to advantage. When used for spectral imaging a large aperture (typically 10mm or more) is desired in order to permit sufficient optical throughput. However, in the mid IR the λ2 dependence on RF drive power combined with the large aperture can prove to be a hurdle, often making them impractical for many applications beyond about 2μm. We describe and compare a series of specialised free-space configurations of AOTF made from single crystal tellurium dioxide, that require relatively low RF drive power. We report on AOTFs specifically optimised for operation with a new generation of Supercontinuum source operating in the 2-4μm window and show how these may be used in a spectral imaging system. Finally, we describe an AOTF with an (acoustic) Fabry-Perot cavity operating at acoustic resonance rather than the conventional travelling-wave mode; the acoustic power requirement therefore being reduced. We present an analysis of the predicted performance. In addition, we address the practical issues in deploying such a scheme and outline the design of a prototype “resonant AOTF” operating in the 1-2μm region.

Double-AOTF-based aberration-free spectral imaging endoscopic system for biomedical applications

The problem of in vivo photoluminescence diagnostics of the tissues accessible by endoscopes is discussed. The spectral imaging module attachable to conventional rigid and flexible medical endoscopes is developed and described. It is based on a double acousto-optical tunable filter (AOTF) and a specialized optical coupling system. The module provides wide field of view (FOV), absence of image distortions, random spectral access, fast spectral image acquisition at any wavelength in the visible range and accurate measurement of reflectance spectrum in each pixel of the image. Images of typical biomedical samples are presented and discussed. Their spectra are compared to the reference data.

Mid infra-red hyper-spectral imaging with bright super continuum source and fast acousto-optic tuneable filter for cytological applications.

Mid-IR imaging spectroscopy has the potential to offer an effective tool for early cancer diagnosis. Current development of bright super-continuum sources, narrow band acousto-optic tunable filters and fast cameras have made feasible a system that can be used for fast diagnosis of cancer in vivo at point of care. The performance of a proto system that has been developed under the Minerva project is described.

Rapid and Early Detection of Salmonella Serotypes with Hyperspectral Microscopy and Multivariate Data Analysis

This study was designed to evaluate hyperspectral microscope images for early and rapid detection of Salmonella serotypes Enteritidis, Heidelberg, Infantis, Kentucky, and Typhimurium at incubation times of 6, 8, 10, 12, and 24 h. Images were collected by an acousto-optical tunable filter hyperspectral microscope imaging system with a metal halide light source measuring 89 contiguous wavelengths every 4 nm between 450 and 800 nm. Pearson correlation values were calculated for incubation times of 8, 10, and 12 h and compared with data for 24 h to evaluate the change in spectral signatures from bacterial cells over time. Regions of interest were analyzed at 30% of the pixels in an average cell size. Spectral data were preprocessed by applying a global data transformation algorithm and then subjected to principal component analysis (PCA). The Mahalanobis distance was calculated from PCA score plots for analyzing serotype cluster separation. Partial least-squares regression was applied for calibration and validation of the model, and soft independent modeling of class analogy was utilized to classify serotype clusters in the training set. Pearson correlation values indicate very similar spectral patterns for reduced incubation times ranging from 0.9869 to 0.9990. PCA score plots indicated cluster separation at all incubation times, with incubation time Mahalanobis distances of 2.146 to 27.071. Partial least-squares regression had a maximum root mean squared error of calibration of 0.0025 and a root mean squared error of validation of 0.0030. Soft independent modeling of class analogy correctly classified values at 8 h (98.32%), 10 h (96.67%), 12 h (88.33%), and 24 h (98.67%) with the optimal number of principal components (four or five). The results of this study suggest that Salmonella serotypes can be classified by applying a PCA to hyperspectral microscope imaging data from samples after only 8 h of incubation.

Innovative application of NIR-AOTF and MRI to study water behaviour in cut flower

In order to study the water status of cut flowers, a comparison study was made between flowers stored in water and flowers stored «dry pack», by using a portable NIR (near infrared)-AOTF(acousto-optical tunable filter) instrument and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). As model flower, Zantedeschia aethiopica (commercially known as Calla lily) was used. To predict the weight loss and water content by NIR-AOTF, cut flowers were dried in a cold room at 10°C (±1°C) and 85% (±5%) relative humidity (RH), and measured for weight loss. For MRI application, 4 and 20°C storage temperatures were used for flowers kept in water or dry; two stem sections, basal and middle, were measured. Significant correlation results for weight loss and water content ( R2 in calibration = 0.98 for estimated % of water loss and 0.96 for % of water content; R2 cv = 0.95 and 0.90) were obtained by NIR-AOTF spectra acquisitions. MRI detected vessel degradation in the stem of the water-stored flowers at 4°C but at 20°C in dry storage no vessel degradation appeared and images were correlated with dry matter values. The use of image software allowed the transformation of images in normalized population and pixel intensity, which gave hints about the potential use of these data to combine with NIR-AOTF data. NIR-AOTF, an easy-to-use and non destructive instrument, can be used to predict the vase life of cut flowers by measuring water content or weight loss. MRI is a powerful tool to identify the plugging of vessels but it is destructive; the image software used represents a useful tool to correlate MRI with NIR-AOTF to predict vessel plugging.