Acid Value Research Articles

The Use of Gamal Leaves (Gliricidia sepium) to Accelerate Fresh Fruit Bunch Detachment and Improve the Quality of Crude Palm Oil

Acceleration of processing for fresh fruit bunches (FFB) is crucial to increase profitability and business opportunities for oil palm farmers. This research aims to evaluate the effect of using gamal (Gliricidia sepium) leaves and the duration of ripening on the percentage of FFB processing as well as the quality of crude palm oil. This study employed a factorial completely randomized design (CRD). The data were analyzed using ANOVA with Duncan’s Multiple Range Test at a significance level of 5%. The results of the analysis showed that the best treatment was S3T2 (40% gamal leaves, 20 h of ripening) with a natural processing percentage of 45.87% of the FFB weight and 60.34% of the total bunch weight. The use of gamal leaves and the duration of ripening significantly affected the quality parameters of the oil, especially the free fatty acid content. Treatment S1T1 (20% gamal leaves, 10 h of ripening) showed the best results with a free fatty acid value of 1.30%, meeting the quality standard (<5%). However, the moisture content still exceeded the quality standard (<0.5%), although treatment S3T2 yielded the best result at 0.63%. While, the impurity content quality met the quality standard (<0.5%), with the best value achieved by treatment S1T1 at 0.15%. Keywords: Bunch detachment, CPO quality, Ethylene, Gliricidia sepium, Ripening.

GC–MS, 1H and 13C NMR, and physiochemical properties of oils of Dacryodes Edulis and Persea Americana

A comparative investigation was carried out on the seed oils of P. americana and D. edulis for their physiochemical properties and spectroscopic properties. Oils were extracted from the respective powdered seeds using Soxhlet extraction technique giving 18.63% and 45.49% yields for P. americana and D. edulis, respectively. The seed oils were subjected to physiochemical analysis using standard protocols as prescribed by the American Oil Chemist Society (AOCS) and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The fatty acid content was determined using Gas Chromatography, Proton (1H) and Carbon-13 (13C) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy. The results indicates that linoleic acid is the most unsaturated fatty acid, while stearic acid is the most saturated fatty acid in both oils. Unsaturated fatty acid peaks for olefinic H were observed at 5.34 and 5.31 ppm for P. americana and at 5.43 and 5.32 ppm for D. edulis oils in 1H-NMR. For 13C-NMR, the presence of C with triple bond attached to an alkyl group was observed at 85 ppm for the P. americana, while similar peak was observed for D. edulis at 128.21 to 130.1 ppm. The chemical characterization of the oils gave iodine values of 51.86 mgI2/g for P. americana oil and 48.72 mgI2/g for D. edulis oil. Similarly, acid values of 3.45 mg KOH/kg and 5.76 mg KOH/kg were obtained for P. americana and D. edulis seed oils respectively. The physiochemical and spectroscopic results obtained showed that P. americana and D. edulis seed oils have the potential for use in a number of industrial applications.

Nutritional and Antinutritional Evaluation of the Pulp and Seed of Terminalia catappa l. (Tropical Almond) Fruit and Physicochemical Properties of Its Seed Oil

Aims: This study aimed at determining the nutritional and antinutritional composition of the pulp and seeds as well as physicochemical characteristics of the seed oil of Terminalia catappa L. (tropical almond). Methodology: The analyses were done in the Agroecology and life science laboratory of the University of Buea between June 2023 and May 2024. The experimental design was employed. Oil was extracted using soxhlet method. UV-visible spectrophotometer was used for nutritional and antinutritinal analyses; while gas chromatography and titrimetry were used to analyse the fatty acid profile and physicochemical properties of the seed oil respectively. Results: Results revealed that the seeds recorded more concentrated energy (596.28 Kcal/100g) than the pulps (403.42 Kcal/100g). Total phenolic (133.70 ± 0.15 mg/100g), tannin (77.90 ± 0.01 mg/100g), oxalate (15.01 ± 0.01 mg/100g) and phytic acid (2.81 ± 0.06 mg/100g) contents were displayed by the pulp and 29.70 ± 0.25, 18.00 ± 0.07, 20.92 ± 0.07 and 1.88 ± 0.01 mg/100g, respectively for seeds. The abundant minerals in the pulp were K, Ca, Na, and P, those in the seeds were Mg, K, P and Fe. The Acid value, Saponification value, Iodine value, Peroxide value and P-anisdine value of the seed oil were 2.24 ± 1.16 mgKOH/g, 222.2 ± 3.11 mgKOH/g, 78.50 ± 0.54 gI2/100g, 5.50 ± 0.71 mEq/kg and 3.65 ± 0.23, respectively. Fatty acid profiling showed 66.68% unsaturated fatty acids of which 19.86% and 9.81% were linoleic and linolenic, respectively and 33.32% saturated. Conclusion: The pulps and seeds of T. catappa have a significantly high content of macro and micronutrients that can meet up the nutritional needs of a population and the quality assessment of the oil suggests that it can be recommended as suitable for industrial usage.

Increasing SBA-15 Amphoteric Properties by Direct Zr Addition During Synthesis

Strategies followed to improve SBA-15 surface (essentially inert) included modifications by adding acidic or basic (or both) species during or after silica synthesis. Amphoteric properties are especially important, as some reactions (alcohol dehydration, for instance) require both types of sites to efficiently take place. In this work, single Zr (nominal 3, 5, and 10 wt%, as ZrOCl2•8H2O) direct addition during SBA-15 synthesis was used to impart amphoteric characteristics (as determined by NH3 and CO2 TPD) to mesostructured SiO2 matrices. Additional materials characterization included textural (N2 physisorption) and structural (XRD, FTIR, and UV–Vis spectroscopies, and HRTEM as well) studies. Actual solids composition was also determined (EDS). The degree of Zr incorporation into mesoporous silica was enhanced with nominal content in binary formulations, although not necessarily integrated into SBA-15 walls forming Zr-O-Si linkages. It seemed that single ZrO2 domains (framework and extra-framework) could provide suitable amphoteric properties by significantly increasing the number and strength of both acid and basic sites (especially formulations containing nominal 5 wt% Zr), as to those over mesostructured silica matrices. Also, potentially deleterious strong acid sites were avoided. The binary oxides present great potential to be applied in reactions requiring vicinal acid–base pairs (alcohol dehydration, for instance).

Recycling of rigid polyurethane foams via acidolysis

The primary objective of this research is to advance our understanding of the recycling of polyurethane foams (PUF) through the process of acidolysis, with the specific focus on evaluating the potential of recovering rigid PUF waste. Drawing from the prior investigations on acidolysis of flexible PUF waste, we extended our research to the depolymerization of rigid PUF using succinic acid. The resulting recycled polyol (RP) exhibited comparable characteristics to the RP derived from flexible PUF. This similarity was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses, as well as by examining the hydroxyl number (OHnumber) and acid value (AV) of the ensuing RP. Subsequently, rigid foams were produced using the RP as a partial replacement of the conventional polyol. The assessments of the PUF obtained revealed that this substitution did not compromise the morphology nor the physical properties of the foams. This was verified by scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses, mechanical tests, and thermogravimetric analyses (TGA). In summary, our findings indicate that acidolysis is a viable method for recycling both flexible and rigid PUF, underscoring the growing significance of this recycling technique for the development of more sustainable materials.

Experimental Study of the Effect of Plastic Pyrolysis Oil on the Physical-Chemical Properties of Rubber Seed Biodiesel and Diesel Engine Performance using a Mixture of Plastic Pyrolysis Oil-Rubber Seed Biodiesel-Diesel Fuel

Rubber seed oil is a potential source of biodiesel, but its utilization is still limited. From previous research studies, the addition of Rubber Seed Biodiesel (RSB) to diesel will reduce engine performance and increase BSFC but can increase emissions. At the same time, plastic waste has posed a very serious environmental challenge due to its large quantity and suboptimal processing problems. Pyrolysis is considered to be an efficient solution for handling plastic waste, because it operates at low pressure and produces Plastic Pyrolysis Oil (PPO) as fuel. The success of research on converting plastic waste into fuel can be a solution to limited biodiesel raw materials, as well as a solution for handling plastic waste. From various previous studies it is known that PPO has a higher heating value than biodiesel, but biodiesel has a higher centane number. Based on these various symptoms, it is interesting to research the use of a mixture of RSB and PPO fuels, because they are thought to complement each other. In this research, PPO was added to RSB starting at 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%, then the physicochemical properties of each mixture were examined, it was found that PPO could increase the heating value, reduce viscosity, density and acid number, reduce the cetane number and reduces the oxidation stability of RSB. To test on a diesel engine, PPO was added to the diesel-RSB mixture. The diesel portion is set at 60%, while the RSB and PPO portions are varied starting from 40% RSB 0% PPO, 30% RSB 10% PPO, 20% RSB 20% PPO and 10% RSB 30% PPO. Diesel engine performance and emissions were investigated when PPO was added to the fuel mixture. The search results show that BTE decreased by 4% when using B10P30 compared to using pure diesel, but increased by around 30% compared to using RSB40 at full load. The addition of PPO to the Diesel-RSB mixture increases CO, HC and smoke emissions, but is still lower than pure diesel emissions.

Physico-chemical, textural, microbiological and sensory properties together with fatty acid profiles of presumptive probiotic yoghurts fortified with persimmon (Diospyros kaki) powder.

This research paper focuses on enrichment of yoghurt containing probiotic Lactobacillus casei with persimmon (Diospyros kaki) powder in concentrations of 0 (Control) and then 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0% (A-D respectively) and determination of some characteristics of the product during refrigerated storage for 21 d. Powder addition affected the color characteristics, textural properties, titratable acidity and water-holding capacity values. The viability of both yoghurt bacteria (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus) and L. casei increased proportionally to adding persimmon powder for all storage days. Furthermore, addition of fruit powder increased short-chain fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid contents. According to sensory analysis results, sample D had the lowest scores from the panelists, whereas the Control together with samples B and C were the most liked yoghurts in terms of flavor characteristics. In terms of overall acceptability, all of the samples received scores over three points on a five-point scale throughout storage. This study indicates that persimmon powder enriched yoghurt is a good vehicle for L. casei and yoghurt bacteria with improved fatty acid profile and acceptable sensory characteristics.

Bioenergy Production from Sorghum Distillers Grains via Dark Fermentation

Sorghum distillers grains (SDGs) produced from a sorghum liquor company were used for generating biohydrogen via dark fermentation at pH 4.5–6.5 and 55 °C with a batch test, and the biohydrogen electricity generation potential was evaluated. The experimental results show that pH markedly affects hydrogen concentration, hydrogen production rate (HPR) and hydrogen yield (HY), in that high acidic pH values result in high values. The HPR and HY ranged from 0.76 to 3.2 L/L-d and 21.4 to 62.3 mL/g chemical oxygen demand, respectively. These hydrogen production values were used to evaluate bioelectricity generation using a newly developed gas/liquid-fuel engine. The results show a new and prospective biomass source for biohydrogen production, bioelectricity generation and simultaneously solving the problem of treating SDGs when producing kaoliang liquor. Applications of the experimental results are also discussed.

Study on the Influence of Scaling‐Up in the Transesterification Process for the Synthesis of Biodegradable Monoglycerides of Fatty Acids

ABSTRACTFatty acids and monoglycerides from vegetable oils or animal fats are crucial in various industries. Monoglycerides, with their hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties, act as effective non‐ionic surfactants for oil‐in‐water emulsions. Scaling‐up the synthesis of biodegradable non‐ionic surfactants from natural sources presents challenges in maintaining physicochemical properties. This study investigates the scale‐up synthesis of biodegradable non‐ionic surfactants using sunflower oil and glycerol, focusing on properties like kinematic viscosity, acid number, and active matter content. Comparative experiments were conducted using different reactor sizes and configurations, evaluating the effects of reactor size, length‐to‐diameter (L/D) ratio, and mixer type. The results indicate that larger reactors generally reduce kinematic viscosity and active matter content. The geometric characteristics of the reactor significantly impact surfactant properties with variations in the RD/RH ratio affecting the active matter content and changes in the MPD/RD ratio influencing the water number. Based on our findings, the highest active matter content was achieved with an RD/RH ratio of 0.49 and an MPD/RD ratio of 0.95. A strong correlation was found between the active matter content and water solubility. The study underscores the importance of reactor design in optimizing surfactant properties when scaling‐up.

Enhancing the oil extraction process and exploring phytochemical composition and bioactivities of bitter melon seeds (Momordica charantia L.)

This study was conducted to determine the phytochemical composition of bitter melon seeds (Momordica charantia L.) grown in Long An province (Vietnam), to investigate optimal conditions for lipid extraction, and to evaluate the extracted lipid’s quality. The seeds had a moisture content of 5.27%, total ash of 1.85%, total flavonoid content of 91.10 mg/100 g, and total polyphenol content of 478.95 mg/100 g. The seeds were also free of highly toxic metals such as lead and cadmium. Using the Soxhlet method, optimal lipid extraction was achieved with a material-to-solvent ratio of 1:80 (w/v) over 4 hours, resulting in a lipid extraction efficiency of 13.74%. The acid, saponification, ester, and peroxide values were 1.01 mg KOH/g, 355.60 mg KOH/g, 354.59 mg KOH/g, and 3.82 meq O2/kg, respectively, in compliance with the quality requirements of Vietnam and Codex standards. The extracted lipids had antioxidant activity at an IC50 value of 119 mg/mL and inhibited the growth of two microbial strains Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis subsp. spizizenii. These findings suggest that bitter melon oil has potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Commensal Escherichia coli Isolates from Chickens in Hungarian Poultry Farms Between 2022 and 2023

Background: Widespread use of antibiotics has led to a global increase in resistance. The Escherichia coli bacterium is a facultative pathogen that often develops antibiotic resistance and is easily transmitted, not only in animal health but also in public health. Within the poultry sector, domestic fowl is widespread and one of the most dynamically growing sectors, which is why regular, extensive monitoring is crucial. Among economically important livestock, poultry as a major source of animal protein for humans is a frequent carrier of Escherichia coli, also with sporadically detected clinical disease. Methods: Our research evaluates the susceptibility of commensal Escherichia coli strains, isolated from large domestic fowl flocks in Hungary, to antibiotics of animal and public health importance, by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration value. Results: A total of 410 isolates were tested, with the highest level of resistance being found for florfenicol (62.7%). Particularly alarming are the resistance rates to enrofloxacin (52.9%), colistin (30.7%), and ceftriaxone (23.9%). We also found a resistance of 56.1% to amoxicillin and 22.2% to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, which suggests that the majority of strains are β-lactamase-producing. When compared with the national human resistance data, we found with similar values for amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, but the resistance rates of aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, and potency sulfonamide were worse in animal health. Conclusions: In conclusion, our results suggest that periodic surveys should be carried out and that long-term trends can be established that allow the monitoring of resistance patterns over time. For multidrug-resistant strains, new generation sequencing can be used to investigate the genetic background of resistance.

SBR elastomer response to renewable diesel blends: An experimental investigation

To investigate the impact of Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) exposure to renewable fuels during handling and storage processes, compatibility tests were conducted on three different renewable fuel mixtures: 30% biodiesel, 40% biodiesel, and 30% biodiesel + 10% hydrogenated vegetable oil. These tests involved static immersion experiments conducted at room temperature for a duration of 1000 h, following the ASTM D471 standards. Before and after the immersion tests, the physical properties and visually assessed elastomers concentrations were investigated by varying the SBR content. Additionally, the post-immersion fuel properties were examined. The results showed that mass and volume swelling increased with the SBR-to-bound sulfur ratio. Enhanced mechanical strength was observed, particularly in cases with medium SBR content, which correlated with higher carbon black concentrations. The increasingly subtle morphological appearance was also captured via SEM. After immersion, fuel characterization showed that parameters such as acid number and water content remained stable without significant alterations.

Molecular dynamics-based computational investigations on the influence of tumor suppressor p53 binding protein against other proteins/peptides

The tumor-suppressing p-53 binding protein is a crucial protein that is involved in the prevention of cancer via its regulatory effect on a number of cellular processes. Recent evidence indicates that it interacts with a number of other proteins involved in cancer in ways that are not fully understood. An understanding of such interactions could provide insights into novel ways p53 further exerts its tumour prevention role via its interactions with diverse proteins. Thus, this study aimed to examine the interactions of the p53 protein with other proteins (peptides and histones) using molecular simulation dynamics. We opted for a total of seven proteins, namely 2LVM, 2MWO, 2MWP, 4CRI, 4 × 34, 5Z78, and 6MYO (control), and had their PBD files retrieved from the protein database. These proteins were then docked against the p-53 protein and the resulting interactions were examined using molecular docking simulations run at 500 ns. The result of the interactions revealed the utilisation of various amino acids in the process. The peptide that interacted with the highest number of amino acids was 5Z78 and these were Lys10, Gly21, Trp24, Pro105, His106, and Arg107, indicating a stronger interaction. The RMSD and RMSF values indicate that the complexes formed were stable, with 4CRI, 6MYO, and 2G3R giving the most stable values (less than 2.5 Å). Other parameters, including the SASA, Rg, and number of hydrogen bonds, all indicated the formation of fairly stable complexes. Our study indicates that overall, the interactions of 53BP1 with p53K370me2, p53K382me2, methylated K810 Rb, p53K381acK382me2, and tudor-interacting repair regulator protein indicated interactions that were not as strong as those with the histone protein. Thus, it could be that P53 may mediate its tumour suppressing effect via interactions with amino acids and histone.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Amino Acid and Peptide Conjugates of 5-Bromovaleric Acid.

Among various carboxylic acid derivatives, valeric acid or pentanoic acid is found to be widely distributed in nature. It is a straight-chain alkyl carboxylic acid containing five carbon atoms. Due to the therapeutic value of valeric acid, it is used as a versatile nucleus in the pharmaceutical field. Valeric acid derivatives are associated with a broad spectrum of biological activities, like anticonvulsant, antiplatelet, antidiabetic, and plant growth activities. It has previously been revealed that peptide derivatives of carboxylic acids are accountable for enhanced antimicrobial activity. Therefore, it was hypothesized that coupling peptides with valeric acid would increase the antimicrobial properties of the target compounds. So, the objective of the present study was to synthesize peptide derivatives of 5-bromovaleric acid and evaluate their antibacterial and antifungal activities. 5-bromovaleric acid was synthesized by the reaction of cyclopentanone and hydrogen peroxide in the presence of copper bromide and sodium bromide. Additionally, 5-bromovaleric acid was coupled with amino acid methyl esters, dipeptides, tripeptides, and tetrapeptides in the presence of dicyclohexylcarbodimide (DCC) and N-methylmorpholine (NMM) as a base under continuous stirring for 36 hours to produce its peptide derivatives. The results obtained showed that 5-bromovaleric acid possesses more potent antibacterial activity than N-terminal 5-bromovaleric acid conjugates of selected di-, tri, and tetra peptide Cterminal methyl esters against ciprofloxacin as a standard. The selected dipeptide and tripeptide Nterminal 5-bromovaleric acid-conjugated C-terminal methyl ester derivatives were more active than the selected tetrapeptide methyl ester analogue. Using fluconazole as a reference, the antifungal efficacy of 5-bromovaleric acid against C. albicans and A. niger declined as it was combined with C-terminal methyl esters of selected dipeptides, tripeptides, and tetrapeptides. The novel selected peptide derivatives had less antibacterial and antifungal action than the parent 5-bromovaleric acid. Antibacterial and antifungal investigations showed that 5- bromopentanoic acid peptide derivatives might impair antimicrobial efficacy. Further, attaching 5- bromopentanoic acid to di, tri, and tetra peptides did not boost their antibacterial potential.

Clodronic Acid has Strong Inhibitory Interactions with the Urease Enzyme of Helicobacter pylori: Computer-aided Design and in vitro Confirmation.

Helicobacter pylori (HP) infection could lead to various gastrointestinal diseases. Urease is the most important virulence factor of HP. It protects the bacterium against gastric acid. Therefore, we aimed to design urease inhibitors as drugs against HP infection. The DrugBank-approved library was assigned with 3D conformations and the structure of the urease was prepared. Using a re-docking strategy, the proper settings were determined for docking by PyRx and GOLD software. Virtual screening was performed to select the best inhibitory drugs based on binding affinity, FitnessScore, and binding orientation to critical amino acids of the active site. The best inhibitory drug was then evaluated by IC50 and the diameter of the zone of inhibition for bacterial growth. The structures of prepared drugs were screened against urease structure using the determined settings. Clodronic acid was determined to be the best-identified drug, due to higher PyRx binding energy, better GOLD FitnessScore, and interaction with critical amino acids of urease. In vitro results were also in line with the computational data. IC50 values of Clodronic acid and Acetohydroxamic Acid (AHA) were 29.78 ± 1.13 and 47.29 ± 2.06 μg/ml, respectively. Diameters of the zones of inhibition were 18 and 15 mm for Clodronic acid and AHA, respectively. Clodronic acid has better HP urease inhibition potential than AHA. Given its approved status, the development of a repurposed drug based on Clodronic acid would require less time and cost. Further, in vivo studies would unveil the efficacy of Clodronic acid as a urease inhibitor.

Efficiency of Potato Peel Extract in the Preservation of Cow Butter

This study investigates that the phenolic compound extracted from the potato peels using ethanol by maceration as a natural preservation agent for cow butter, yielding 10.42 ± 0.03% phenolic compound. A quantitative and qualitative analysis of potato peels extract (PPE) was conducted to examine the phenolic compounds. The major preliminary phytochemical screenings (Alkaline Reagent Test, Ferric Chloride Test, Chloride Test) were performed to detect the presence of phenols, flavonoids, and tannins. The total phenolic content was measured using the Folin–Ciocalteu method with UV spectrophotometry, which produced 2.9468 ± 0.03 mg GAE/g of dry extract. The total flavonoid content was determined using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method, resulting in 3.6885 ± 0.02 mg equivalent Quercetin/g of dry extract. During 21 days, butter samples treated with PPE at various concentrations (0.2% and 0.3%) and storage temperatures (20 °C and 45 °C) were examined for chemical parameters (peroxide value and free fatty acid value) and microbiological parameters (aerobic total bacterial count and yeast mould count). The findings showed that the samples preserved at 20 °C with a concentration of 0.3% extract had better preservation than samples stored at other temperatures. It also showed lower values of peroxide and free fatty acids, as well as less microbial growth. On the other hand, samples without extract that were kept at 45 °C demonstrated more oxidation and microbial growth. The oxidative stability of cow butter was assessed using the Rancimat method. Results indicate that PPE significantly enhances both oxidative stability and shelf life, offering preservative benefits for up to six months. Specifically, the induction period (IP) at room temperature reached 3,960 hours (165 days) with PPE, compared to only 120 hours (5 days) without it. These findings suggest that the phenolic compounds in the potato peels could serve as natural preservatives for cow butter, particularly when stored at lower temperatures.

Genome-wide survey of chlorophyllase (CLH) gene family in seven Rosaceae and functional characterization of MdCLH1 in apple (Malus domestica) leaf photosynthesis

Chlorophyll, a crucial pigment in plant photosynthesis, undergoes dynamic synthesis and degradation processes throughout the growth cycle of plants. Chlorophyllase (CLH) plays a crucial role in the degradation of chlorophyll by removing the phytol group from chlorophyll A to produce chlorophyllide A. However, Rosaceae species remain underexplored in terms of understanding the functional divergences among CLH gene family members (CLHs) involved in chlorophyll catabolism and photosynthesis. The apple (Malus domestica) CLHs also requires further systematic characterization and identification. In this study, 20 CLHs (MdCLH1-4, FvCLH1-2, PpCLH1-2, PcCLH1-3, PaCLH1-2, RrCLH1-4, RcCLH1-3) were identified from seven species belonging to the Rosaceae family. The chromosomal distribution of these gene family members is mostly separate across all species, except in Rosa rugosa. The number of amino acids encoded by these genes ranges from 171 aa to 391 aa, possessing a theoretical isoelectric point (PI) of 5.46-9.59, and a relative molecular weight of 18313.07D to 42413.21D. Secondary structure predictions highlight α-helix and random coil conformations as the dominant structural elements of CLH proteins present in Rosaceae species. Subcellular localization predictions indicate that all CLH proteins are expressed in chloroplasts, while MdCLH4 is uniquely localized to the nucleus. Phylogenetic analysis reveals high homology and close evolutionary relationships among the genes in three subfamilies. All these 20 CLHs contain elements responsive to phytohormones, environmental stress, and light. Furthermore, transcriptomic profiling using geneChip expression array coupled with qRT-PCR analyses revealed a heightened transcriptional activity of MdCLHs in leaf tissues and protective tissue of annual shoots as compared to other plant components. Additional experimental evidence specifically indicates MdCLH1 is located in the chloroplasts of tobacco leaves. Notably, MdCLH1 transient expression in apple leaves decreased chlorophyll a, carotenoids, total chlorophyll content, non - photochemical quenching coefficient (NPQ), and intercellular CO₂ concentration (Ci), while increasing chlorophyll b content, effective PSII quantum yield [Y(II)], net photosynthetic rate (Pn), stomatal conductance (Gs), and electron transport rate (ETR). These suggest MdCLH1 enhances light energy conversion in PSII by modulating chlorophyll degradation, potentially improving photosynthetic efficiency and reducing the potential for photoinhibition. This study lays a solid foundation for further exploration into the functional roles of CLHs in the Rosaceae family.

Surfactant-modified ZnFe2O4/CaOPS porous acid-base bifunctional catalysts for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil and process optimization

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO) with high acid value is useful for clean energy development and utilization. In this work, ZnFe2O4(5)/CaOPS porous bifunctional catalysts were prepared for catalytic production of biodiesel with the help of surfactants such as PVP, SDS and citric acid, using a sol-gel method. The ZnFe2O4(5)/CaOPS catalysts were characterized using XRD, SEM, EDX, NH3-TPD, and BET. The parameters (reaction temperature, catalyst dosage, methanol-oil ratio and reaction time) for the transesterification reaction to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were optimized for the optimal materials using a one-variable method. Experiments were designed using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for global optimization to obtain the best process parameters. The final average yield of FAMEs was 96.89% under the optimum reaction parameter of catalyst dosage of 5.06wt%, reaction temperature of 63.69°C, reaction time of 212.22min and methanol-oil ratio of 12.96:1. The prepared biodiesel was characterized using FT-IR, 1H NMR as well as 13C NMR and compared with international standard ASTM D6751. The ZnFe2O4(5)/CaOPS catalyst has excellent stability in biodiesel production and has some free fatty acid tolerance. In addition, a cost analysis and sensitivity analysis were done for the production of WCO biodiesel. It is hoped that the research results in this paper can provide a theoretical basis for biodiesel production from WCO with high free fatty acid content.

Enhanced conversion of rosin to polymerized rosin with reusable Brønsted acid deep eutectic solvent

With the depletion of non-renewable resources and the increasingly serious environmental problems, the production of high value-added polymer materials using renewable resources as raw materials had aroused great interest. Deep eutectic solvent (DES)-[ChCl][TfOH]2 (prepared by choline chloride (ChCl) and trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH)), with suitable acid strength (H0=0.98) and active hydrogen, had been successfully used for enhanced conversion of rosin to polymerized rosin efficiently, under the conditions of rosin =15 g, mDES: mrosin=30 %, T=110℃ and t=9 h, polymerized rosin with high softening point (150.40℃) and low acid value (124.21 mg KOH/g) could be produced efficiently. [ChCl][TfOH]2 required no special treatment then could be reused for 5 times without significant loss of catalytic performance, on this basis, the green synthesis technology of polymerized rosin under DES system was given, not only promoted the further application of polymerized rosin, but also realized the high value-added utilization of renewable resource rosin. In addition, the formation mechanism of DES was systematically explained through DFT calculation, the reaction mechanism of rosin polymerization over [ChCl][TfOH]2 was explored, which could provide theoretical basis for further research.

Determining the amount of water and the total acid number index in the hydraulic oil of the Austoft 7000 sugarcane harvester with visible/near-infrared spectroscopy technology

The current era witnesses significant challenges in the realm of sugarcane harvesting, primarily stemming from the assessment and high maintenance costs associated with sugarcane harvesting machines. Consequently, there arises a crucial need for a rapid and non-destructive method of monitoring the hydraulic oil of sugarcane harvesters, facilitating the determination of pollution levels and the total acid number (TAN) index. This study delves into the efficacy of visible/ near-infrared spectroscopy as a non-destructive means of measuring and predicting the water content and TAN index in hydraulic oil samples extracted from Austoft 7000 sugarcane harvesters with varying numbers of operational hours. To achieve this objective, hydraulic oil samples are subjected to analysis within the spectral range of 400-1800 nm. Multivariate regression models are developed based on reference measurements and preprocessed spectral data. Various preprocessing methods including moving average (MA), Savitzky-Golay (SG) smoothing, standard normal distribution and first derivative are employed to enhance the accuracy of water content and TAN index predictions. The findings underscore the viability of visible/near-infrared spectrometry for rapid and non-destructive assessment of the water content and TAN index in the hydraulic oil across different operational phases of Austoft 7000 sugarcane harvesters. Notably, the partial least squares (PLS) model utilising a moving average preprocessing method exhibits the most promising results in predicting the water content in the hydraulic oil (cross-validation correlation coefficient (rcv) = 0.98, root mean square error of cross-validation (RMSECV) = 1.32, predictive correlation coefficient (rp) = 0.93 and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) = 2.49), boasting excellent accuracy (standard deviation ratio (SDR) = 3.99). Similarly, the PLS model incorporating a combination of moving average preprocessing and standard normal distribution demonstrates exceptional accuracy in predicting the TAN index (SDR = 3.87) (rcv = 0.98, RMSECV = 0.004, rp = 0.93 and RMSEP = 0.008). Consequently, the utilisation of visible/near-infrared spectroscopy technology is advocated within the agricultural and industrial domains to expedite the monitoring of hydraulic oil quality and pollution control processes.