Acids In Membrane Phospholipids Research Articles

In Staphylococcus aureus, the acyl-CoA synthetase MbcS supports branched-chain fatty acid synthesis from carboxylic acid and aldehyde precursors.

In the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) are the most abundant fatty acids in membrane phospholipids. Strains deficient for BCFAs synthesis experience auxotrophy in laboratory culture and attenuated virulence during infection. Furthermore, the membrane of S. aureus is among the main targets for antibiotic therapy. Therefore, determining the mechanisms involved in BCFAs synthesis is critical to manage S. aureus infections. Here, we report that the overexpression of SAUSA300_2542 (annotated to encode an acyl-CoA synthetase) restores BCFAs synthesis in strains lacking the canonical biosynthetic pathway catalyzed by the branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase (BKDH) complex. We demonstrate that the acyl-CoA synthetase activity of MbcS activates branched-chain carboxylic acids (BCCAs), and is required by S. aureus to utilize the isoleucine derivative 2-methylbutyraldehyde to restore BCFAs synthesis in S. aureus. Based on the ability of some staphylococci to convert branched-chain aldehydes into their respective BCCAs and our findings demonstrating that branched-chain aldehydes are in fact BCFAs precursors, we propose that MbcS promotes the scavenging of exogenous BCCAs and mediates BCFA synthesis via a de novo alternative pathway.

Lipid signaling and proline catabolism are activated in barley roots (Hordeum vulgare L.) during recovery from cold stress

Previous findings have shown that phospholipase D (PLD) contributes to the response to long-term chilling stress in barley by regulating the balance of proline (Pro) levels. Although Pro accumulation is one of the most prominent changes in barley roots exposed to this kind of stress, the regulation of its metabolism during recovery from stress remains unclear. Research has mostly focused on the responses to stress per se, and not much is known about the dynamics and mechanisms underlying the subsequent recovery. The present study aimed to evaluate how PLD, its product phosphatidic acid (PA), and diacylglycerol pyrophosphate (DGPP) modulate Pro accumulation in barley during recovery from long-term chilling stress. Pro metabolism involves different pathways and enzymes. The rate-limiting step is mediated by pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) in its biosynthesis, and by proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) in its catabolism. We observed that Pro levels decreased in recovering barley roots due to an increase in ProDH activity. The addition of 1-butanol, a PLD inhibitor, reverted this effect and altered the relative gene expression of ProDH. When barley tissues were treated with PA before recovery, the fresh weight of roots increased and ProDH activity was stimulated. These data contribute to our understanding of how acidic membrane phospholipids like PA help to control Pro degradation during recovery from stress.

Lipid droplets and polyunsaturated fatty acid trafficking: Balancing life and death.

Lipid droplets are fat storage organelles ubiquitously distributed across the eukaryotic kingdom. They have a central role in regulating lipid metabolism and undergo a dynamic turnover of biogenesis and breakdown to meet cellular requirements for fatty acids, including polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids esterified in membrane phospholipids define membrane fluidity and can be released by the activity of phospholipases A2 to act as ligands for nuclear receptors or to be metabolized into a wide spectrum of lipid signaling mediators. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids are also highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation, which if left uncontrolled leads to ferroptotic cell death. On the one hand, lipid droplets act as antioxidant organelles that control polyunsaturated fatty acid storage in triglycerides in order to reduce membrane lipid peroxidation, preserve organelle function and prevent cell death, including ferroptosis. On the other hand, lipid droplet breakdown fine-tunes the delivery of polyunsaturated fatty acids into metabolic and signaling pathways, but unrestricted lipid droplet breakdown may also lead to the release of lethal levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Precise regulation of lipid droplet turnover is thus essential for polyunsaturated fatty acid distribution and cellular homeostasis. In this review, we focus on emerging aspects of lipid droplet-mediated regulation of polyunsaturated fatty acid trafficking, including the management of membrane lipid peroxidation, ferroptosis and lipid mediator signaling.

Membrane Stress Caused by Unprocessed Outer Membrane Lipoprotein Intermediate Pro-Lpp Affects DnaA and Fis-Dependent Growth.

In Escherichia coli, repression of phosphatidylglycerol synthase A gene (pgsA) lowers the levels of membrane acidic phospholipids, particularly phosphatidylglycerol (PG), causing growth-arrested phenotype. The interrupted synthesis of PG is known to be associated with concomitant reduction of chromosomal content and cell mass, in addition to accumulation of unprocessed outer membrane lipoprotein intermediate, pro-Lpp, at the inner membrane. However, whether a linkage exists between the two altered-membrane outcomes remains unknown. Previously, it has been shown that pgsA+ cells overexpressing mutant Lpp(C21G) protein have growth defects similar to those caused by the unprocessed pro-Lpp intermediate in cells lacking PG. Here, we found that the ectopic expression of DnaA(L366K) or deletion of fis (encoding Factor for Inversion Stimulation) permits growth of cells that otherwise would be arrested for growth due to accumulated Lpp(C21G). The DnaA(L366K)-mediated restoration of growth occurs by reduced expression of Lpp(C21G) via a σE-dependent small-regulatory RNA (sRNA), MicL-S. In contrast, restoration of growth via fis deletion is only partially dependent on the MicL-S pathway; deletion of fis also rescues Lpp(C21G) growth arrest in cells lacking physiological levels of PG and cardiolipin (CL), independently of MicL-S. Our results suggest a close link between the physiological state of the bacterial cell membrane and DnaA- and Fis-dependent growth.

A Novel Anti-Inflammatory Role of Omega-3 PUFAs in Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerosis and Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia.

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory chronic disease affecting arterial vessels and leading to vascular diseases, such as stroke and myocardial infarction. The relationship between atherosclerosis and risk of neurodegeneration has been established, in particular with vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID). Systemic atherosclerosis increases the risk of VCID by inducing cerebral infarction, or through systemic or local inflammatory factors that underlie both atherosclerosis and cognition. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are involved in inflammatory processes, but with opposite roles. Specifically, omega-3 PUFAs exert anti-inflammatory properties by competing with omega-6 PUFAs and displacing arachidonic acid in membrane phospholipids, decreasing the production of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Experimental studies and some clinical trials have demonstrated that omega-3 PUFA supplementation may reduce the risk of different phenotypes of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. This review describes the link between atherosclerosis, VCID and inflammation, as well as how omega-3 PUFA supplementation may be useful to prevent and treat inflammatory-related diseases.

The interaction of talin with the cell membrane is essential for integrin activation and focal adhesion formation

Multicellular organisms have well-defined, tightly regulated mechanisms for cell adhesion. Heterodimeric αβ integrin receptors play central roles in this function and regulate processes for normal cell functions, including signaling, cell migration, and development, binding to the extracellular matrix, and senescence. They are involved in hemostasis and the immune response, participate in leukocyte function, and have biological implications in angiogenesis and cancer. Proper control of integrin activation for cellular communication with the external environment requires several physiological processes. Perturbation of these equilibria may lead to constitutive integrin activation that results in bleeding disorders. Furthermore, integrins play key roles in cancer progression and metastasis in which certain tumor types exhibit higher levels of various integrins. Thus, the integrin-associated signaling complex is important for cancer therapy development. During inside-out signaling, the cytoskeletal protein talin plays a key role in regulating integrin affinity whereby the talin head domain activates integrin by binding to the cytoplasmic tail of β-integrin and acidic membrane phospholipids. To understand the mechanism of integrin activation by talin, we determined the crystal structure of the talin head domain bound to the acidic phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), allowing us to design a lipid-binding-deficient talin mutant. Our confocal microscopy with talin knockout cells suggests that the talin-cell membrane interaction seems essential for focal adhesion formation and stabilization. Basal integrin activation in Chinese hamster ovary cells suggests that the lipid-binding-deficient talin mutant inhibits integrin activation. Thus, membrane attachment of talin seems necessary for integrin activation and focal adhesion formation.

Liver X receptors in lipid signalling and membrane homeostasis.

Liver X receptors α and β (LXRα and LXRβ) are nuclear receptors with pivotal roles in the transcriptional control of lipid metabolism. Transcriptional activity of LXRs is induced in response to elevated cellular levels of cholesterol. LXRs bind to and regulate the expression of genes that encode proteins involved in cholesterol absorption, transport, efflux, excretion and conversion to bile acids. The coordinated, tissue-specific actions of the LXR pathway maintain systemic cholesterol homeostasis and regulate immune and inflammatory responses. LXRs also regulate fatty acid metabolism by controlling the lipogenic transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c and regulate genes that encode proteins involved in fatty acid elongation and desaturation. LXRs exert important effects on the metabolism of phospholipids, which, along with cholesterol, are major constituents of cellular membranes. LXR activation preferentially drives the incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids into phospholipids by inducing transcription of the remodelling enzyme lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 3. The ability of the LXR pathway to couple cellular sterol levels with the saturation of fatty acids in membrane phospholipids has implications for several physiological processes, including lipoprotein production, dietary lipid absorption and intestinal stem cell proliferation. Understanding how LXRs regulate membrane composition and function might provide new therapeutic insight into diseases associated with dysregulated lipid metabolism, including atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus and cancer.

The membrane pacemaker hypothesis: novel tests during the ontogeny of endothermy.

The 'membrane pacemaker' hypothesis proposes a biochemical explanation for among-species variation in resting metabolism, based on the positive correlation between membrane docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and metabolic rate. We tested this hypothesis using a novel model, altricial red-winged blackbird nestlings, predicting that the proportion of DHA in muscle and liver membranes should increase with the increasing metabolic rate of the nestling as it develops endothermy. We also used a dietary manipulation, supplementing the natural diet with fish oil (high DHA) or sunflower oil (high linoleic acid) to alter membrane composition and then assessed metabolic rate. In support of the membrane pacemaker hypothesis, DHA proportions increased in membranes from pectoralis muscle, muscle mitochondria and liver during post-hatch development. By contrast, elevated dietary DHA had no effect on resting metabolic rate, despite causing significant changes to membrane lipid composition. During cold challenges, higher metabolic rates were achieved by birds that had lower DHA and higher linoleic acid in membrane phospholipids. Given the mixed support for this hypothesis, we conclude that correlations between membrane DHA and metabolic rate are likely spurious, and should be attributed to a still-unidentified confounding variable.

Sequestration of polyunsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids of Caenorhabditis elegans dauer larva attenuates eicosanoid biosynthesis for prolonged survival

Mechanistic basis governing the extreme longevity and developmental quiescence of dauer juvenile, a “non-ageing” developmental variant of Caenorhabditis elegans, has remained largely obscure. Using a lipidomic approach comprising multiple reaction monitoring transitions specific to distinct fatty acyl moieties, we demonstrated that in comparison to other developmental stages, the membrane phospholipids of dauer larva contain a unique enrichment of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Esterified PUFAs in phospholipids exhibited temporal accumulation throughout the course of dauer endurance, followed by sharp reductions prior to termination of diapause. Reductions in esterified PUFAs were accompanied by concomitant increases in unbound PUFAs, as well as their corresponding downstream oxidized derivatives (i.e. eicosanoids). Global phospholipidomics has unveiled that PUFA sequestration in membrane phospholipids denotes an essential aspect of dauer dormancy, principally via suppression of eicosanoid production; and a failure to upkeep membrane lipid homeostasis is associated with termination of dauer endurance.

Transgenic overexpression of the Nrf2 ameliorates insulin resistance and changes fatty acids in membrane phospholipids in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Objectives: Dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and increased oxidative stress are important components of metabolic syndrome (MS). Transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2) plays a key role in cellular defence againts oxidative stress, participates in metabolic homeostasis and in lipid metabolism. To test the role of Nrf2 in lipid metabolism disturbances in the pathogenesis of MS, we derived spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) transgenic line with ubiquitous expression of the Nrf2 gene (SHR-Nrf2).

PlsX deletion impacts fatty acid synthesis and acid adaptation in Streptococcus mutans

Streptococcus mutans, one of the primary causative agents of dental caries in humans, ferments dietary sugars in the mouth to produce organic acids. These acids lower local pH values, resulting in demineralization of the tooth enamel, leading to caries. To survive acidic environments, Strep. mutans employs several adaptive mechanisms, including a shift from saturated to unsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids. PlsX is an acyl-ACP : phosphate transacylase that links the fatty acid synthase II (FASII) pathway to the phospholipid synthesis pathway, and is therefore central to the movement of unsaturated fatty acids into the membrane. Recently, we discovered that plsX is not essential in Strep. mutans. A plsX deletion mutant was not a fatty acid or phospholipid auxotroph. Gas chromatography of fatty acid methyl esters indicated that membrane fatty acid chain length in the plsX deletion strain differed from those detected in the parent strain, UA159. The deletion strain displayed a fatty acid shift similar to WT, but had a higher percentage of unsaturated fatty acids at low pH. The deletion strain survived significantly longer than the parent strain when cultures were subjected to an acid challenge of pH 2.5.The ΔplsX strain also exhibited elevated F-ATPase activity at pH 5.2, compared with the parent. These results indicate that the loss of plsX affects both the fatty acid synthesis pathway and the acid-adaptive response of Strep. mutans.

Setting the pace of life: membrane composition of flight muscle varies with metabolic rate of hovering orchid bees.

Patterns of metabolic rate variation have been documented extensively in animals, but their functional basis remains elusive. The membrane pacemaker hypothesis proposes that the relative abundance of polyunsaturated fatty acids in membrane phospholipids sets the metabolic rate of organisms. Using species of tropical orchid bees spanning a 16-fold range in body size, we show that the flight muscles of smaller bees have more linoleate (%18 : 3) and stearate (%18 : 0), but less oleate (%18 : 1). More importantly, flight metabolic rate (FlightMR) varies with the relative abundance of 18 : 3 according to the predictions of the membrane pacemaker hypothesis. Although this relationship was found across large differences in metabolic rate, a direct association could not be detected when taking phylogeny and body mass into account. Higher FlightMR, however, was related to lower %16 : 0, independent of phylogeny and body mass. Therefore, this study shows that flight muscle membrane composition plays a significant role in explaining diversity in FlightMR, but that body mass and phylogeny are other factors contributing to their variation. Multiple factors are at play to modulate metabolic capacity, and changing membrane composition can have gradual and stepwise effects to achieve a new range of metabolic rates. Orchid bees illustrate the correlated evolution between membrane composition and metabolic rate, supporting the functional link proposed in the membrane pacemaker hypothesis.

Role of Cytosolic Phospholipase A2 in Oxidative and Inflammatory Signaling Pathways in Different Cell Types in the Central Nervous System

Phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2)s) are important enzymes for the metabolism of fatty acids in membrane phospholipids. Among the three major classes of PLA(2)s in the mammalian system, the group IV calcium-dependent cytosolic PLA(2) alpha (cPLA(2)α) has received the most attention because it is widely expressed in nearly all mammalian cells and its active participation in cell metabolism. Besides Ca(2+) binding to its C2 domain, this enzyme can undergo a number of cell-specific post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation by protein kinases, S-nitrosylation through interaction with nitric oxide (NO), as well as interaction with other proteins and lipid molecules. Hydrolysis of phospholipids by cPLA(2) yields two important lipid mediators, arachidonic acid (AA) and lysophospholipids. While AA is known to serve as a substrate for cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases, which are enzymes for the synthesis of eicosanoids and leukotrienes, lysophospholipids are known to possess detergent-like properties capable of altering microdomains of cell membranes. An important feature of cPLA(2) is its link to cell surface receptors that stimulate signaling pathways associated with activation of protein kinases and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the central nervous system (CNS), cPLA(2) activation has been implicated in neuronal excitation, synaptic secretion, apoptosis, cell-cell interaction, cognitive and behavioral function, oxidative-nitrosative stress, and inflammatory responses that underline the pathogenesis of a number of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the types of extracellular agonists that target intracellular signaling pathways leading to cPLA(2) activation among different cell types and under different physiological and pathological conditions have not been investigated in detail. In this review, special emphasis is given to metabolic events linking cPLA(2) to activation in neurons, astrocytes, microglial cells, and cerebrovascular cells. Understanding the molecular mechanism(s) for regulation of this enzyme is deemed important in the development of new therapeutic targets for the treatment and prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid protects against oxidative stress-related renal dysfunction induced by TCDD in Wistar rats

Humans are systemically exposed to persistent organic pollutants, of which 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) has become a major environmental concern. Exposure to TCDD results in a wide variety of adverse health effects which is mediated by oxidative stress through CYP1A1 activation and arachidonic acid metabolites. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) exhibits antioxidant property and competes with arachidonic acid in membrane phospholipids and produces anti-inflammatory EPA derivatives. Since both EPA and its derivatives have been reported to enhance the antioxidant mechanism, the present study aimed at studying whether EPA could offer protection against TCDD-induced oxidative stress and nephrotoxicity in Wistar rats. Estimation of kidney markers (serum urea and creatinine) and histopathological studies revealed that EPA treatment significantly reduced TCDD-induced renal damage. TCDD-induced oxidative damage was reflected in a significant increase in CYP1A1 activity and lipid peroxide levels with a concomitant decline in non-enzymic antioxidant (GSH) and various enzymic antioxidants such catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). In addition, TCDD-induced oxidative stress also resulted in decline in Na(+)-K(+) and Mg(2+)ATPases activities with increase in Ca(2+) ATPases activity. Oral treatment with EPA showed a significant cytoprotection against TCDD-induced renal oxidative stress by decreased CYP1A1 activity and enhanced antioxidant status. TCDD-induced alterations in ATPase enzyme activities were also prevented by EPA treatment. Our results show clear evidence that EPA ameliorates TCDD-induced oxidative stress and kidney damage; thus suggest the potential of EPA as an effective therapeutic agent against toxic effects mediated through redox imbalance.

Atherosclerosis, dyslipidemia, and inflammation: the significant role of polyunsaturated Fatty acids.

Phospholipids play an essential role in cell membrane structure and function. The length and number of double bonds of fatty acids in membrane phospholipids are main determinants of fluidity, transport systems, activity of membrane-bound enzymes, and susceptibility to lipid peroxidation. The fatty acid profile of serum lipids, especially the phospholipids, reflects the fatty acid composition of cell membranes. Moreover, long-chain n-3 polyunsatured fatty acids decrease very-low-density lipoprotein assembly and secretion reducing triacylglycerol production. N-6 and n-3 polyunsatured fatty acids are the precursors of signalling molecules, termed “eicosanoids,” which play an important role in the regulation of inflammation. Eicosanoids derived from n-6 polyunsatured fatty acids have proinflammatory actions, while eicosanoids derived from n-3 polyunsatured fatty acids have anti-inflammatory ones. Previous studies showed that inflammation contributes to both the onset and progression of atherosclerosis: actually, atherosclerosis is predominantly a chronic low-grade inflammatory disease of the vessel wall. Several studies suggested the relationship between long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation, showing that fatty acids may decrease endothelial activation and affect eicosanoid metabolism.

Lipin/phosphatidic acid phosphatase in lipid metabolism and cell physiology

Phosphatidate (PA) phosphatase catalyzes the dephosphorylation of PA to produce diacylglycerol (DAG) and Pi. The DAG produced in the reaction is used for the synthesis of triacylglycerol (TAG) and for the synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine via the Kennedy pathway. The discovery that PAH1 encodes PA phosphatase in yeast led to the revelation that the mouse fat‐regulating protein named lipin is a PA phosphatase enzyme. The location and catalytic efficiency of the yeast enzyme are governed by multiple phosphorylations/dephosphorylations, whereas enzyme expression is governed by transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms. Yeast pah1 mutants have increased levels of PA and palmitoleic acid in membrane phospholipids, and reduced levels of DAG and TAG. The TAG deficiency renders pah1 mutants exceptionally sensitive to fatty acid (e.g., palmitoleic acid)‐induced toxicity. The elevated PA content in pah1 mutants causes the induction of phospholipid synthesis gene expression and the aberrant expansion of the nuclear/ER membrane. The pah1 mutant also exhibits a respiratory deficiency phenotype, a decreased life span, and sensitivity to growth at elevated temperature. This work is supported by National Institutes of Health grants GM‐28140 and GM‐50679.

Improved Mitochondrial Function with Diet-Induced Increase in Either Docosahexaenoic Acid or Arachidonic Acid in Membrane Phospholipids

Mitochondria can depolarize and trigger cell death through the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). We recently showed that an increase in the long chain n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n3) and depletion of the n6 PUFA arachidonic acid (ARA; 20:4n6) in mitochondrial membranes is associated with a greater Ca2+ load required to induce MPTP opening. Here we manipulated mitochondrial phospholipid composition by supplementing the diet with DHA, ARA or combined DHA+ARA in rats for 10 weeks. There were no effects on cardiac function, or respiration of isolated mitochondria. Analysis of mitochondrial phospholipids showed DHA supplementation increased DHA and displaced ARA in mitochondrial membranes, while supplementation with ARA or DHA+ARA increased ARA and depleted linoleic acid (18:2n6). Phospholipid analysis revealed a similar pattern, particularly in cardiolipin. Tetralinoleoyl cardiolipin was depleted by 80% with ARA or DHA+ARA supplementation, with linoleic acid side chains replaced by ARA. Both the DHA and ARA groups had delayed Ca2+-induced MPTP opening, but the DHA+ARA group was similar to the control diet. In conclusion, alterations in mitochondria membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition caused by dietary DHA or ARA was associated with a greater cumulative Ca2+ load required to induced MPTP opening. Further, high levels of tetralinoleoyl cardiolipin were not essential for normal mitochondrial function if replaced with very-long chain n3 or n6 PUFAs.

A Conserved Lipid-binding Loop in the Kindlin FERM F1 Domain Is Required for Kindlin-mediated αIIbβ3 Integrin Coactivation

The activation of heterodimeric integrin adhesion receptors from low to high affinity states occurs in response to intracellular signals that act on the short cytoplasmic tails of integrin β subunits. Binding of the talin FERM (four-point-one, ezrin, radixin, moesin) domain to the integrin β tail provides one key activation signal, but recent data indicate that the kindlin family of FERM domain proteins also play a central role. Kindlins directly bind integrin β subunit cytoplasmic domains at a site distinct from the talin-binding site, and target to focal adhesions in adherent cells. However, the mechanisms by which kindlins impact integrin activation remain largely unknown. A notable feature of kindlins is their similarity to the integrin-binding and activating talin FERM domain. Drawing on this similarity, here we report the identification of an unstructured insert in the kindlin F1 FERM domain, and provide evidence that a highly conserved polylysine motif in this loop supports binding to negatively charged phospholipid head groups. We further show that the F1 loop and its membrane-binding motif are required for kindlin-1 targeting to focal adhesions, and for the cooperation between kindlin-1 and -2 and the talin head in αIIbβ3 integrin activation, but not for kindlin binding to integrin β tails. These studies highlight the structural and functional similarities between kindlins and the talin head and indicate that as for talin, FERM domain interactions with acidic membrane phospholipids as well β-integrin tails contribute to the ability of kindlins to activate integrins.

Phosphoinositides Control the Activity of Slick and Slack K+ Channels

Phosphoinositides are acidic membrane phospholipids involved in cell signaling in eukaryotes. The most common isoform in the plasma membrane, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate, usually named PIP2, has proven to be necessary for the activity of a number of ion channels and transporters. PIP2 regulates all members of the Kir and KCNQ channel families; furthermore it also directly modulates Slo1 (BKCa) and Slo3 channels. Slick (Slo2.1) and Slack (Slo2.2) channels are high-conductance K+ channels widely distributed in the CNS. The present work evaluates the PIP2 sensitivity of Slo2 channels, namely Slick and Slack K+ channels. To address this issue, both channels were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and currents were measured by two-electrode voltage clamp before and after pre-incubation of oocytes in 10μM PIP2. Two isoforms of PIP2: PI(3,4)P2 and PI(4,5)P2 activated K+ currents through Slick and Slack channels. Manipulation of endogenous PIP2 levels using nanomolar concentrations of wortmannin, which is known to block PI3 kinase leading to PIP2 build-up in the membrane, resulted in increased currents through Slick and Slack channels. In contrast, application of micromolar concentrations of wortmannin, which block both PI3 and PI4 kinases leading to PIP2 depletion from the membrane, resulted in decreased activity of both channels. Treatment with neomycin, a polycation which acts as PIP2 scavenger and prevents it from interacting with the channels, produced a stepwise reduction in the activity of Slick and Slack channels induced by exogenous PIP2. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates for the first time that Slick and Slack K+ channels are regulated by the availability of PIP2 in the membrane. Therefore, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate acts as common activator of the Slo K+ channel family despite their different structures and physiological roles.

S14 * IDENTIFICATION OF NEUROINFLAMMATION IN THE BRAIN IN VIVO AND IN VITRO AND THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES TO COMBAT ITS PROGRESSION * S14.1 * INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES IN NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES

S14 * IDENTIFICATION OF NEUROINFLAMMATION IN THE BRAIN IN VIVO AND IN VITRO AND THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES TO COMBAT ITS PROGRESSION * S14.1 * INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES IN NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES