Acid Composition Of Breast Milk Research Articles

Red blood cell membrane fatty acid composition in infants fed formulas with different lipid profiles

BackgroundThere is growing interest in the fatty acid composition of breast milk and substitute formulas used to replace or complement infant breastfeeding. AimThe aims of this study were to assess the impact of two follow-up infant formulas based on cow milk fat, vegetable oils and different docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic (ARA) acid content on red blood cell membrane fatty acid composition, and determine the percent saturated fatty acid (SFA) incorporation into the membrane. Study designThis was a double-blind, randomized, controlled, parallel-group clinical trial. Infants received treatment or control product for at least four months before the age of six months. The control group (n=25) received standard infant formula (FA) and the treatment group (n=24) received the same formula supplemented with higher DHA and ARA content (FB). The reference group (n=47) consisted of normal healthy exclusively breastfed infants. Outcome measureRed blood cell membrane fatty acid composition was determined by capillary gas chromatography. ResultsNinety-six infants completed the study (FA, 25; FB, 24; reference, 47). Higher DHA content reflected higher DHA percentage in the red blood cell membrane. Breast milk and FB did not show any significant differences in DHA content. ARA percentage was higher in breastfed infants and palmitic acid percentage was higher in FB- compared with FA-fed infants. ConclusionDHA and palmitic acid percent distributions were higher in the red blood cell membrane of infants receiving FB. DHA percent distribution was not significantly different in FB-fed and breastfed infants. SFA percent distribution was not significantly different when comparing both formulas with breast milk.

Changes in fatty acid composition of human milk over lactation stages and relationship with dietary intake in Chinese women.

Breast milk samples and 24-hour food records were obtained from lactating mothers on day 1 (colostrum), day 14 (transitional milk) and day 42 (mature milk) from Hangzhou (n = 202), Lanzhou (n = 133) and Beijing (n = 142), China. Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared by standard methods, separated and quantified by gas chromatography. We aimed to investigate the fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acid) in human milk of three lactating stages from three regions in China and the relationship with maternal dietary intake during lactation. Present results showed that the fatty acid composition of breast milk varied with lactating period and geographical regions in China. In all the milk samples, the total saturated fatty acid (SFA) remained stable. However, C10:0 and C12:0 increased over the lactation period, total monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) significantly increased from colostrum (34.50%) to transitional milk (37.06%), and total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) showed its highest percentage in colostrum (29.58%). In particular, C22:6n-3 and C22:5n-3 were lowest in mature milk (0.38% and 0.41%, respectively), and C18:3n-3 (1.83%) was lowest in colostrum. There were significant differences among the three regions in total MUFA and PUFA in breast milk. The Hangzhou samples had the lowest C18:1n-9 and highest C22:6n-3. Additionally, C22:6n-3, total PUFA and n-3 PUFA were lowest in the Lanzhou samples. Different dietary habits were largely the drivers behind the different fatty acid profiles among the three regions.

Is there a difference in breast milk fatty acid composition of mothers of preterm and term infants?

Objective: Arachidonic acid (ARA) (c20:4 w6) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) (c22:6 w3) are of major importance for neural maturation and retinal function in infancy. Requirements in preterm infants are increased due to accelerated growth and limited body stores. Data regarding human milk fatty acid composition after preterm and full-term delivery is inconsistent. This study compared fatty acid composition in breast milk from full-term and preterm infants. Findings were correlated with maternal dietary intake.Methods: Human milk was obtained 4–5 days after full-term delivery (20 infants) and 4–5, 10–11 and 14–15 days after preterm delivery (21 infants, of whom 6 were born before 30 weeks). For fatty acid analysis, lipids were extracted, transesterified and separated by gas liquid chromatography.Results: Total fat content was similar in the two groups. FA composition including LCPUFA and specifically ARA & DHA were similar in full-term and preterm infants and in the sub-set born before 30 weeks. In preterm infants, postnatal age did not influence LCPUFA content.Conclusions: This study did not detect any effect of gestational age or postnatal age on milk LCPUFA content. Accordingly, the increased demand for LCPUFA and specifically DHA in preterm infants need to be met by other supplementation.

Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in lactating women increases breast milk and plasma docosahexaenoic acid concentrations and alters infant omega 6:3 fatty acid ratio

This study investigated the effects of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation on the fatty acid composition of breast milk and plasma concentrations in lactating women and their infants. Eighty-nine lactating women 4–6 weeks post-partum received placebo, 200mg or 400mg DHA for 6 weeks with usual diets. Breast milk fatty acids and maternal plasma fatty acids were measured at the beginning and end of the study and infant plasma at the end of the study. Breast milk and maternal plasma DHA were significantly greater with 200mg and 400mg DHA compared with placebo (50% and 123% breast milk p<0.05; 71% and 101% plasma, p<0.0001), respectively. Infant plasma omega 6:3 and arachidonic acid (AA):DHA were significantly greater in the placebo group compared to both supplement groups (67% and 106%; 71% and 116%, respectively, p<0.05). DHA supplementation impacts infant fatty acids important for brain development and breast milk fatty acid composition.

O-038 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Composition Of Breast Milk From Eastern Canadian Mothers Of Preterm Infants

<h3>Background and aim</h3> Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential for early human neurodevelopment. Since breast milk represents the main dietary source of PUFAs for preterm infants, its fatty acid composition is of particular interest. Breast milk fatty acid composition fluctuates from one woman to another, by duration of gestation and stage of lactation, and among countries. As PUFA composition of breast milk from Western Canadian mothers of preterm infants has been previously described, the aim of this pilot study was to describe the compositional variations of PUFAs in breast milk of Eastern Canadian mothers of preterm infants over the first 6 weeks of lactation. <h3>Methods</h3> Samples of breast milk were collected on the 7th, 21st, and 42nd day of lactation from 40 Eastern Canadian mothers who had given birth to preterm infants of gestational age less than 30 weeks. Lipids were extracted using the Folch method (Folch <i><i>et al</i></i>., 1957). Thereafter, the method of direct transesterification was performed (Lepage and Roy, 1986) and PUFAs were quantified by gas chromatography. <h3>Results</h3> Throughout the study, fatty acids from the n-3 and n-6 families, linoleic acid (C18:2n-6), α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3), and eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3) remained stable, whereas arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3) decreased significantly. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Results on the compositional variations of PUFAs in breast milk over the first weeks of lactation are somewhat similar to results of previous European studies. However, values of PUFAs in preterm breast milk of Eastern Canadian mothers are lower than those of Western Canadian mothers.

Preterm infant language development: a role for breast milk fatty acids

Premature infants have an increased risk of developmental disabilities during infancy and childhood. A crucial period of fetal polyunsaturated fatty acid accretion bypassed with prematurity. Objective: to study how the fatty acid composition of breast milk in breast-fed premature infants is associated with cognitive, language, and motor development. Methods: participants included twenty-five healthy preterms, born adequate for gestational age at the Fernandez Figueira Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Fatty acid composition of breast milk samples from the first week postpartum was analyzed using gas-liquid chromatography. Bayley-III developmental scales were applied at 9 or 12 months corrected age. Results: regression analyses revealed that the ratio of linoleic acid to alpha-linolenic acid was positively associated with receptive language development (â = 1.49, p = 0.03). Women with preterm infants showed breast milk long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids concentrations consistent with worldwide levels and a high ratio of linoleic acid to alpha-linolenic acid that might be beneficial for language development in the premature infant. Conclusion: a higher ratio of linoleic to alpha-linolenic acid in breast milk could exert beneficial effects for receptive language development in preterm infants fed breast milk. Larger adequately powered longitudinal studies are recommended to better understand the breast milk composition of this population and its association to developmental indices during infancy.

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid intake during late pregnancy affects fatty acid composition of mature breast milk

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to investigate how maternal polyunsaturated fatty acid intake at different periods during pregnancy affects the composition of polyunsaturated fatty acids in mature human milk. MethodsA prospective study was conducted involving 45 pregnant women, aged between 18 and 35 y, who had full-term pregnancies and practiced exclusive or predominant breast-feeding. Mature breast milk samples were collected after the 5th postpartum week by manual expression; fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography. Fatty acid intake during pregnancy and puerperium was estimated through multiple 24-h dietary recalls. Linear regression models, adjusted by postpartum body mass index and deattenuated, were used to determine associations between estimated fatty acids in maternal diet during each trimester of pregnancy and fatty acid content in mature human milk. ResultsA positive association was identified between maternal intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (β, 1.873; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.545, 3.203) and docosahexaenoic acid (β, 0.464; 95% CI, 0.212–0.714) during the third trimester of pregnancy, as well as the maternal dietary ω-3 to ω-6 ratio (β, 0.093; 95% CI, 0.016–0.170) during the second and third trimesters and postpartum period, with these fatty acids content in mature breast milk. ConclusionsThe maternal dietary docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid content during late pregnancy may affect the fatty acid composition of mature breast milk. Additionally, the maternal dietary intake of ω-3 to ω-6 fatty acid ratio, during late pregnancy and the postpartum period, can affect the polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of breast milk.

Maternal smoking modulates fatty acid profile of breast milk

We hypothesized that the fatty acid composition of breast milk can be affected by a smoking habit in the mother. Consequently, this study verified whether maternal smoking modulates, and if so to what extent, the breast milk fatty acid profile. The study included 20 postpartum women who declared smoking more than five cigarettes daily throughout a period of pregnancy and lactation, and 136 nonsmoking postpartum women. Breast milk samples were collected between the 17th and the 30th day after delivery. The samples were analysed by means of high-resolution gas chromatography for overall content of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Compared with nonsmokers, smokers were characterized by significantly higher relative breast milk contents of fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids. Additionally, smokers' breast milk had higher concentrations of selected saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Furthermore, smokers were characterized by significantly lower values of linoleic to arachidonic acid ratio and n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ratio. Aside from its other harmful consequences, smoking modulates the fatty acid profile of human milk.

Effect of Prolonged Refrigeration on the Lipid Profile, Lipase Activity, and Oxidative Status of Human Milk

The study was aimed at evaluating the effect of prolonged refrigeration of fresh human milk (HM) on its fatty acid profile, free fatty acid content, lipase activities, and oxidative status. HM from mothers of preterm newborns was collected, pooled, and placed in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) refrigerator. Pooled milk was aliquoted and analyzed within 3 hours of collection, and after 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours of storage. The milk samples were analyzed for pH, total and free fatty acid profile, lipase activity at room temperature and at 4°C, lipase activity at room temperature in presence of sodium cholate (bile salt-dependent lipase), total antioxidant capacity, thiobarbituric acid reactive species, malondialdehyde, and conjugated diene concentration. The experiment was replicated in 3 independent trials. Prolonged refrigeration did not affect the fatty acid composition of breast milk, and preserved both its overall oxidative status and the activity of HM lipolytic enzymes. In particular, bile salt-dependent lipase activity, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and medium-chain saturated fatty acid concentrations were unaffected for up to 96 hours of refrigerated storage. Prolonged refrigeration of fresh HM for 96 hours maintained its overall lipid composition. The limited lipolysis during storage should be ascribed to the activity of lipoprotein lipase, responsible for the decrease in pH. Our study demonstrates that infants who receive expressed milk stored for up to 96 hours receive essentially the same supply of fatty acids and active lipases as do infants fed directly at the breast.

Immune factors and fatty acid composition in human milk from river/lake, coastal and inland regions of China

Breast milk fatty acid composition may be affected by the maternal diet during gestation and lactation. The influence of dietary and breastmilk fatty acids on breast milk immune factors is poorly defined. We determined the fatty acid composition and immune factor concentrations of breast milk from women residing in river/lake, coastal and inland regions of China, which differ in their consumption of lean fish and oily fish. Breast milk samples were collected on days 3–5 (colostrum), 14 and 28 post-partum (PP) and analysed for soluble CD14 (sCD14), transforming growth factor (TGF)-b1, TGF-b2, secretory IgA (sIgA) and fatty acids. The fatty acid composition of breast milk differed between the regions and with time PP. The concentrations of all four immune factors in breast milk decreased over time, with sCD14, sIgA and TGF-b1 being highest in the colostrum in the river and lake region. Breast milk DHA and arachidonic acid (AA) were positively associated, and g-linolenic acid and EPA negatively associated, with the concentrations of each of the four immune factors. In conclusion, breast milk fatty acids and immune factors differ between the regions in China characterised by different patterns of fish consumption and change during the course of lactation. A higher breast milk DHA and AA concentration is associated with higher concentrations of immune factors in breast milk, suggesting a role for these fatty acids in promoting gastrointestinal and immune maturation of the infant.

Amino acid requirements in children and the elderly population

The factorial approach is used to measure the dietary indispensable amino acid (IAA) requirements in children, although recent measurements based on the indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO) method have begun to generate more direct evidence. Difficulties with the factorial method are that it depends on accurate estimates of the maintenance protein requirement, as well as of protein deposition during growth. Also, a value for the efficiency of utilizing dietary protein for deposition has to be selected, based on published Nitrogen (N) balance studies. In the recent 2007 WHO/FAO/UNU report, the amino acid requirement pattern for infants was taken to be similar to the amino acid composition of breast milk. For pre-school and older children, the factorial method gave values for the scoring pattern of protein that were fairly close to the earlier 1985 WHO/FAO/UNU report for children, since growth progressively became a smaller component of the factorial calculation as age progressed. However, given that there are several assumptions in the derivation of factorial estimates, direct experimental measurements of the amino acid requirement are desirable. The IAAO method, as it is non-invasive, as made it possible to measure the IAA requirements in children. Over the last decade, some of the IAA requirements have been determined by using the IAAO method in healthy school age children; however, the data on IAA requirements in developing country populations are still being conducted. In the elderly, there are not enough data to make a separate recommendation for IAA requirements from that of adults.

Low breast milk levels of long‐chain n‐3 fatty acids in allergic women, despite frequent fish intake

BackgroundLong-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have immune regulating and anti-inflammatory effects. However, their role in allergic disease is unclear. Allergic diseases are immunologically heterogeneous, and we hypothesized that n-3 fatty acid composition in serum and breast milk may vary according to clinical manifestations. Further, animal studies have shown reduction of serum-PUFA levels during allergic inflammation.ObjectiveTo investigate fatty acid composition in breast milk and serum from women with different atopic disease manifestations. Secondly, to determine whether low PUFA levels reflected insufficient intakes.MethodsFatty acids were analysed in breast milk and serum of women with atopic eczema and respiratory allergy (n=16), only respiratory allergy (n=7), as well as healthy women (n=22). Dietary intake of foods expected to affect long-chain n-3 PUFA levels were estimated by food-frequency questionnaire. The fatty acid pattern was related to diagnostic group and intake of relevant food items using a multivariate pattern recognition method (partial least squares projections to latent structures and discriminant analysis).ResultsWomen with a combination of eczema and respiratory allergy had lower breast milk levels of several PUFAs (arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA, docosahexaenoic acid, DHA, and docosapentaenoic acid, DPA), and a lower ratio of long-chain n-3 PUFAs/n-6 PUFAs. Their PUFA levels differed not only from that of healthy women, but also from that of women with only respiratory allergy. The latter had a fatty acid pattern similar to that of healthy women. Despite low EPA, DHA and DPA levels women with eczema and respiratory allergy consumed no less fish than did healthy women.Conclusion & Clinical RelevanceOur data suggest that reduced levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids in serum and breast milk characterize women with extensive allergic disease including eczema, and are not related to low fish intake. Consumption of PUFAs during the allergic process may explain these findings.

Teneurs en acides gras polyinsaturés essentiels du lait maternel en France : évolution des teneurs en acides linoléique et alpha-linolénique

Background: Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are nutritionally important constituents of breast milk to support normal growth, immune function and central nervous system development of newborn infants. Both linoleic acid (18:2 n-6; LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3; ALA), the essential fatty acids, precursors of n-6 and n-3 LC-PUFA, are also present in breast milk. Although the total amount of fat in human milk is fairly constant, the fatty acid composition can vary substantially depending on the diet of the mother. Large variations in the LA, ALA and DHA (22:6 n-3) contents are observed among countries. As reported by previous studies, the ALA consumption of the French population was 2-3 times lower than the recommended value. Since this period, the food industry offers more food products enriched in n-3 fatty acids. Objective: The present study aimed to investigate whether nutritional recommendations and the improvement of the n-3 PUFA content of foodstuffs have contributed to an improvement of the PUFA composition of human milk. For this purpose, the PUFA content of a large number of human milk samples collected in 2007 in different French regions were compared with previous data obtained in studies conducted in the nineties years (1993-1998).Study design and methods: Mature (postpartum day ≥ 30) human milk samples (n = 145) were provided in 2007 by eight French regional human milk banks (Bordeaux: n = 20; Dijon: n = 21; Ile-de-France: n = 18; Lyon: n = 20 ; Montpellier: n = 18 ; Nantes: n = 21 ; St Etienne: n = 6 ; Tours: n = 21), from healthy women volunteers with no particular health history. The fatty acid composition of breast milk was analyzed by high-resolution gas-liquid chromatography. Statistical analysis was performed with Kruskall Wallis and Mann and Whitney U tests (p Fatty acid composition of human milk samples did not differ significantly among the eight French regions. The proportions of saturated fatty acids were similar (means ranging from 44.9% to 48.7% of total fatty acids). Monounsaturated fatty acids also varied little, from 36.9% to 39.7%. Total n-6 and n-3 PUFA accounted for 12.5%-15.2%, with the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio value close to 10, similar among the collect centers. Considering the overall results, LA ranged from 10.4% to 12.7%, and ALA from 0.72% to 0.95%. Comparison of previous data (1993-1998) to the present results showed opposite changes in both LA and ALA contents. Between the two periods, the LA level decreased by 17%, whereas the ALA level increased by 45%, and consequently the LA/ALA ratio value favorably decreased from 24 to 15. The LC-PUFA content remained unchanged.Conclusion: Basing on the PUFA composition of human milk, this large French study has showed favourable changes in consumption of both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid precursors.

Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Composition of Breast Milk in Pre-Eclamptic Mothers

Background: Maternal fatty acid nutrition during pregnancy and lactation determines the transfer of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids via the placenta and through human milk. Neural maturation of breast-fed infants is known to be linked to breast-milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations. In spite of this, the fatty acid composition of breast milk in pre-eclamptic mothers is poorly understood. Objectives: To compare the fatty acid composition of breast milk of pre-eclamptic (n = 45) with normotensive (n = 85) mothers and examine the association of breast-milk fatty acids with plasma fatty acids. Methods: Milk and plasma fatty acid methyl esters were prepared and analyzed by the modified method of Manku and colleagues using gas chromatography. Results: Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) concentrations were significantly increased (p < 0.01) in breast milk in spite of lower maternal plasma DHA concentrations (p < 0.05) in pre-eclamptic women. However, there was no difference in arachidonic acid levels between groups in spite of reduced maternal plasma arachidonic acid levels. Conclusions: The data suggest that in pre-eclampsia, the relation between plasma and milk DHA is altered. The resulting higher milk DHA concentrations are beneficial for infants.

Teneurs en acides gras polyinsaturés essentiels du lait maternel en France : évolution du contenu en acides linoléique et alphalinolénique au cours des 10 dernières années

Background: Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are nutritionally important constituents of breast milk to support normal growth, immune function and central nervous system development of newborn infants. Both linoleic acid (18:2 n-6; LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n-3; ALA), the essential fatty acids, precursors of n-6 and n-3 LC-PUFA, are also present in breast milk. Although the total amount of fat in human milk is fairly constant, the fatty acid composition can vary substantially depending on the diet of the mother. Large variations in the LA, ALA and DHA (22:6 n-3) contents are observed among countries. As reported by previous studies (1993-2001), the ALA consumption of the French population was 2-3 times lower than the recommended value. Since this period, the food industry offers more food products enriched in n-3 fatty acids. Objective: The present study aimed to investigate whether current recommendations and improved n-3 PUFA content of food products comply with the actual breast-milk PUFA composition. For this purpose, the PUFA content of a large number of human milk samples collected in 2007 in different French regions were compared with previous data obtained in studies conducted in the nineties years (1993-1998). Moreover, this study aimed to confirm expected reduction of the trans fatty acid (TFA) intake resulting from decreased level of TFA in margarine and other dietary fats during the same period. Study design and methods: Mature (postpartum day ≥ 30) human milk samples (n = 145) were provided in 2007 by eight French regional human milk banks (Bordeaux : n = 20; Dijon: n = 21; Ile-de-France: n = 18; Lyon: n = 20; Montpellier: n = 18; Nantes: n = 21; St Etienne: n = 6; Tours: n = 21), from healthy women volunteers with no particular health history. The fatty acid composition of breast milk was analysed by high-resolution gas-liquid chromatography. Statistical analysis was performed with Kruskall Wallis and Mann and Whitney U tests (p < 0.05). Results: Fatty acid composition of human milk samples did not differ significantly among the eight French regions. The proportions of saturated fatty acids were relatively similar (means ranging from 44.9% to 48.7% of total fatty acids). Monounsaturated fatty acids also varied little, from 36.9% to 39.7%. Total n-6 and n-3 PUFA accounted for 12.5%-15.2%, with an n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio close to 10, similar among the collect centers. Considering the overall results, LA represented between 10.4% and 12.7%, and ALA varied from 0.72% to 0.95%. Comparison of our results to previous data (1993-1998) showed opposite changes for LA and ALA. During the last decade, the LA level has decreased by 17%, whereas the ALA level has increased by 45%, and hence in 2007, the LA/ ALA ratio was close to 14 versus 24 in 1993-1998. The LC-PUFA content remained unchanged. Concerning total TFA, their content was lower (– 37%; p < 0.0001) in 2007 than in 1997, respectively 1.3% and 2.1% of total fatty acids of breast milk. Conclusion: Basing on the PUFA composition of human milk, this large French study shows favourable changes in consumption of both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid precursors, and in TFA, in the course of last decade.

Essential and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status and fatty acid composition of breast milk of lactating adolescents

The aims of the present study were to evaluate essential fatty acids (EFA) and long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) status in lactating adolescents and its association with breast milk composition. Healthy nursing adolescents from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (n 30; 14-19 years; 30-120 d postpartum), exclusively or predominantly breast-feeding, participated in this study. Breast milk and blood samples were collected after overnight fasting. Fatty acid composition of breast milk, erythrocyte membrane (EM) and plasma NEFA were determined by GC. Indices of fatty acid status (mean melting point (MMP); EFA status index; DHA status indices, 22 : 5n-6:22 : 4n-6 and 22 : 6n-3:22 : 5n-6 ratios) were calculated from EM fatty acid composition. Dietary intake of n-3 fatty acids was low when compared with current recommendations for lactating women. MMP was associated with indices of DHA status, some individual fatty acids in EM and years post-menarche and weeks postpartum, suggesting the use of erythrocyte MMP as a possible comprehensive biochemical marker of LCPUFA status in this physiological condition. The DHA status of lactating adolescents and their milk DHA concentrations were similar to the values of Brazilian lactating adults, but lower compared with the values of lactating adults from other countries. Therefore, these lactating adolescents were apparently not disadvantaged, as compared with the Brazilian adults, when EM and breast milk fatty acid composition were considered. In general, PUFA in milk from adolescents presented few associations with their concentrations in plasma NEFA and with maternal status. However, milk DHA was associated with maternal LCPUFA and DHA states.

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in breast milk and early weight gain in breast-fed infants

The long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) content of an infant's diet might affect early weight gain. In early trials on supplementation of formula feeding n-3 LCPUFA affected weight gain adversely. n-6 LCPUFA are thought to promote adipose tissue development and might be associated with higher weight gain. We studied the association between the natural n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA content of breast milk of Dutch women and weight and BMI gain of their breast-fed infants in the first year of life. The children in this study were enrolled in the Prevention and Incidence of Asthma and Mite Allergy (PIAMA) birth cohort study and were born in 1996-1997 in The Netherlands. Parents reported their child's weight and length in a questionnaire. Of a subgroup of the total population breast-milk samples were collected (n 244). The fatty acid composition of breast milk was determined by GLC and expressed as weight percentages. Linear regression was used for data analysis. Mean gain in weight, length and BMI per week from birth to 1 year of age was 119.5 (SD 16.1) g, 0.48 (SD 0.05) cm and 0.06 (SD 0.03) kg/m2, respectively. The associations between n-6 and n-3 LCPUFA in breast milk, and infant weight, length and BMI gain were weak and inconsistent. The n-3 and n-6 LCPUFA content in breast milk did not affect weight or BMI gain in the first year of life in breast-fed term infants.

The Effects of Fish Oil Supplementation in Pregnancy on Breast Milk Fatty Acid Composition Over the Course of Lactation: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study evaluated the longitudinal effect of fish oil in pregnancy on breast milk fatty acid composition and infant outcomes. In a randomized, controlled trial, 98 women received 2.2 g docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and 1.1 g eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or olive oil from 20 wk of gestation until delivery. Fatty acid composition in breast milk (at 3 d, 6 wk, and 6 mo) and infant erythrocyte membranes (at 1 y) were determined by gas liquid chromatography. Breast milk fatty acids were examined in relationship to growth and development. Compared with control group, breast milk from women who received fish oil had proportionally higher DHA and EPA levels at 3 d and 6 wk after delivery, but this difference was no longer apparent by 6 mo. Infant DHA status at 1 y of age was directly related to DHA levels at 3 d, 6 wk, and 6 mo postpartum (but not to antenatal supplementation). Both EPA and DHA in breast milk were positively correlated with Griffith's developmental scores including hand and eye coordination. Thus, supplementation in pregnancy was associated with increased n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) in breast milk, particularly in early lactation, and this was positively associated with infant DHA status at 1 y.

Fatty acid composition in breast milk and serum phospholipids of healthy term Chinese infants during first 6 weeks of life

To compare the fatty acid (FA) pattern in early and mature breast milk with that in plasma phospholipids of cord blood and breast-fed infants. Forty-five mother-infant pairs from western Shanghai were studied. All infants, born at term with normal weight and length, were examined at birth and days 5 and 42. FA was analyzed by capillary gas-liquid chromatography. Cord blood showed higher concentration of long-chain polyunsaturated FA (LCPUFA) but lower saturated (SFA) and monounsaturated (MUFA) FA than postnatal infants' plasma. SFA decreased with age in the infants, but MUFA and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2omega6) increased. LCPUFA were lower in the plasma of 5-day-old infants than in cord blood, but LA was 80%, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3omega3) 33% and the ratio omega-6/omega-3 42% higher. At day 42, LA increased further, LCPUFA remained similar, and was in breast milk lower than at day 5, while ALA and gamma-linolenic acid (18:3omega6) were higher. The activity index of desaturases indicated high Delta9 activity in breast milk and high activity of Delta5 desaturase in the infants. Breast milk FA composition changed markedly from day 5 to 42 with increasing correlation to infants' plasma. Calculation of desaturase activities suggested high capacity of LCPUFA synthesis.

Inadequate Maternal Docosahexaenoic Acid Intake in Lactating Women

Text: Omega-3 fatty acids, specifically docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are essential for infant neural and retinal development. Maternal DHA intake impacts the fatty acid composition of breast milk. Many American women do not regularly consume fatty fish, which is the primary source of omega-3. Additionally, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have advised pregnant and nursing women to limit their seafood intake to a varied 12 ounces per week because of the high levels of the neurotoxin, mercury, found in some fish. If lactating women drastically limit fatty fish intake, their milk may not meet the needs of their infants, even with maternal supplementation. We obtained multiple 24-hour dietary recalls from healthy lactating women (N 85) using Nutrition Data Systems for Research software. Maternal DHA intake was compared to the current Adequate Intake (AI, 300 mg/d). Very few (4%) in our sample met the AI, although intakes were higher among women (n 7) who consumed a DHA supplement (239.9 105.9 mg/d) than those who did not (53.2 90 mg/d, p 0.0003). The most common dietary sources of DHA were: salmon, catfish, tuna, shrimp, and eggs. Nursing mothers who do not meet the AI may not meet the needs of their breast fed infants, which may have future implications on their development. Following the FDA/EPA guideline does not guarantee that nursing mothers will meet the AI. Registered Dietitians should encourage nursing mothers to consume fatty fish as endorsed by the FDA/EPA, and when necessary to supplement with DHA.