Achieve Conservation Goals Research Articles

One rule does not fit it all: Patterns and drivers of stakeholders perspectives of the endangered Iberian wolf

Public attitudes are vital for the successful implementation of management strategies and conservation programs. However, contradictory interests among different stakeholders can create important setbacks, creating barriers to achieve conservation goals. The endangered Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) occupies now only 20 % of its historical distribution area, in Portugal, and its reduction was mostly due to direct human persecution. Here, we assessed locals’ attitudes towards the Iberian wolf in northeast Portugal, in a region where humans and wolves coexist for centuries. A total of 323 questionnaires from three different interest groups (general public, livestock owners and hunters) were analysed. We tested the differences in attitude and fear level patterns between the different groups and assessed what socio-demographic factors could be influencing the detected patterns. We found that general attitude towards this carnivore was neutral to positive, probably owing to the low levels of livestock predation and long coexistence with local populations. However, most drivers differed among stakeholders groups. Education, knowledge, and level of fear were strong predictors explaining attitudes towards this endangered species. We stress the importance of assessing attitudes patterns and identifying the socio-psychological factors as necessary tools to facilitate the development of targeted tolerance-promoting strategies. Among other instruments, increasing locals’ tolerance toward the Iberian wolf can be achieved by target education interventions, where the stakeholders can actively take part in discussions to accommodate their needs and expectation, rather than be listeners of the implemented programs.

Modelling species distributions in dynamic landscapes: The importance of the temporal dimension

AbstractAimTemporal variation in environmental conditions merits greater consideration in species distribution models (SDMs), and is especially relevant in dynamic systems, such as arid and semi‐arid environments, where precipitation and resource pulses are unpredictable in space and time. Species responses to this spatio‐temporal variation include tracking resource availability with nomadic life histories or reliance on refugia that provide stable, high‐quality habitat. This study evaluated whether inclusion of temporal variables representing short‐ and long‐term environmental variation improves SDMs.LocationGreat Western Woodlands, Western Australia.TaxonBirds.MethodsTemporal information was added to SDMs of 36 bird species with two types of environmental predictor variables: (a) time‐specific estimates of gross primary productivity (GPP) and precipitation paired to survey dates; and (b) estimates of the temporal stability of GPP over the MODIS archive, providing an index of the degree to which sites might function as habitat refugia from disturbance and drought. Predictions were compared with those from SDMs using static variables from single time points.ResultsModel predictions revealed considerable temporal variation in species distributions and various spatio‐temporal responses to environmental variation. Temporal variables modestly improved model performance overall, but results were species‐specific. Time‐specific environmental variables were most important to models of nomadic and nectivorous species, which experienced the greatest improvements in model performance when including temporal variables, and showed the greatest disagreement between temporal and static model predictions, and the predictions of temporal models applied to different time points. Long‐term environmental variation was relevant across species groups, though the chosen measure of variability differed between species.Main ConclusionsTemporal variation influences species distributions and may need to be explicitly included in SDMs. However, the nature and degree of species' responses to environmental dynamics depends on species movement behaviours; appropriate selection of temporal variables for SDMs requires ecological understanding of the species of interest. Results of spatio‐temporal SDMs can identify the extent to which landscape management must account for temporal variability to achieve conservation goals.

Tourism wetlands and rural sustainable livelihood: The case from Iran

This study aiming to explore livelihood effects of wetlands on people's livelihood. The area of study, Zarivar wetland, is located in western Iran. The research carried out in a quantity–quality approach conducting library and field studies along with questionnaire and a focus group discussion. Based on the results, the wetland has had a great effect on residence's life in five dimensions of livelihood capitals i.e. financial, natural, human, physical, and social. Among the livelihood strategies from the wetland, the strategy of diversity of livelihood and income activities had greater importance for local households. Also, a positive and significant relationship recognized between livelihood capitals arising from the wetland and household livelihood level. Regarding the results of path analysis, the natural capital has the greatest effect on people's livelihood showing the crucial role of livelihood capitals from the wetland in determining their livelihood level and dependency on functions and services of the existing ecosystem. Management implicationsIf tourism development should improve the livelihood of the local population, an integrated development and conservation strategy must be implemented, based on:-A strong public-private partnership in tourism with participation of local people,-Local engagement in conservation to ensure fascinating nature experiences for tourists,-Sufficient financial resources to achieve conservation goals and to start tourism development,- Education and learning processes to encourage the shift from an agricultural to a non-agricultural production

Does a cannibal feeding strategy impart differential metabolic performance in young burbot (Lota lota maculosa)?

The practice of mitigating cannibalism in aquaculture is an important focus for hatcheries seeking to maximize yield and has been maintained in hatcheries focusing on wild stock restoration. We hypothesize, however, that a cannibal feeding strategy may confer performance advantages over a non-cannibal feeding strategy and that perhaps cannibal size grading may not be optimal for hatcheries focusing on conservation goals. This study examined metabolic performance differences between cannibal and non-cannibal burbot, Lota lota maculosa, at the Kootenai Tribe of Idaho Twin Rivers Hatchery in Moyie Springs, ID, USA. After habitat alteration led to functional extinction of burbot in the region, the Twin Rivers Hatchery has played a leading role in the reestablishment of burbot in the Kootenai River, ID, and British Columbia. We examined morphometric data (weight, length and condition factor), whole animal resting metabolic rate and the enzyme activity of lactate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase to describe the baseline metabolic performance of cannibal and non-cannibal burbot. Taken together, our results demonstrated significant differences in the metabolic strategies of cannibal vs. non-cannibal burbot, where cannibals relied more heavily on carbohydrate metabolism and non-cannibals relied more heavily on glycolytic and lipid metabolism. This study demonstrates the need to reevaluate the traditional practice of removing cannibal fish in conservation hatcheries, as it may not be the ideal strategy of raising the most robust individuals for release. When natural habitat conditions cannot be restored due to permanent habitat alteration, prioritizing release of higher performing individuals could help achieve conservation goals.

Striving for population-level conservation: integrating physiology across the biological hierarchy.

The field of conservation physiology strives to achieve conservation goals by revealing physiological mechanisms that drive population declines in the face of human-induced rapid environmental change (HIREC) and has informed many successful conservation actions. However, many studies still struggle to explicitly link individual physiological measures to impacts across the biological hierarchy (to population and ecosystem levels) and instead rely on a ‘black box’ of assumptions to scale up results for conservation implications. Here, we highlight some examples of studies that were successful in scaling beyond the individual level, including two case studies of well-researched species, and using other studies we highlight challenges and future opportunities to increase the impact of research by scaling up the biological hierarchy. We first examine studies that use individual physiological measures to scale up to population-level impacts and discuss several emerging fields that have made significant steps toward addressing the gap between individual-based and demographic studies, such as macrophysiology and landscape physiology. Next, we examine how future studies can scale from population or species-level to community- and ecosystem-level impacts and discuss avenues of research that can lead to conservation implications at the ecosystem level, such as abiotic gradients and interspecific interactions. In the process, we review methods that researchers can use to make links across the biological hierarchy, including crossing disciplinary boundaries, collaboration and data sharing, spatial modelling and incorporating multiple markers (e.g. physiological, behavioural or demographic) into their research. We recommend future studies incorporating tools that consider the diversity of ‘landscapes’ experienced by animals at higher levels of the biological hierarchy, will make more effective contributions to conservation and management decisions.

Subdivision for conservation?

Creative and strategic approaches are needed to achieve conservation goals in contemporary landscapes. Protected area expansion competes with multiple demands for land and needs to accommodate the socio-economic realities of landscapes to be effective. Smaller planning units can improve targeted acquisitions for protected areas, but ‘subdivision’ used in conservation planning has typically followed ecological patterns. Instead, we suggest that subdividing based on anthropogenic land-development patterns could improve strategic achievement of conservation goals by producing smaller planning units that are also socio-economically relevant. We simulated this approach to subdivision in a New England, USA landscape and evaluated the outcomes for three conservation planning scenarios – protect riparian corridors, protect rare habitats, and protect representative habitats – in the original and subdivided property delineations. For each scenario-delineation combination, we identified protected land expansion solutions that optimized a priority objective within a budget or achieved a conservation target at minimum cost. We used a multi-objective optimization algorithm to identify solutions to navigate tradeoffs between ecological, social, and economic objectives. In our study area, subdivision allowed us to optimize ecological outcomes within a budget and achieve conservation targets at reduced cost. While subdivision solutions were not able to simultaneously improve outcomes for all objectives, they were often able to reduce individual and aggregate outcomes compared to solutions in the originally delineated landscape. Subdivision could be a useful tool for improving implementation of conservation goals because it results in smaller planning units that are able to spatially represent conservation objectives more exactly while remaining socio-economically relevant.

Insights from engaging stakeholders on developing pest management strategies on an inhabited island

Excluding communities from pest management planning has resulted in several deliberate attempts to oppose the implementation of strategies, especially on inhabited islands. However, community members have the potential to generate the momentum needed to achieve conservation goals, when included in the planning process. We combined qualitative and quantitative data to engage 17 conservation actors and 380 island residents in focus group sessions and survey. Thematic data analysis explored local discourse around pest management on the island. The major themes identified were values, aspiration, setbacks and challenges and resolution. We developed hypotheses and tested them statistically using factor analysis and ANOVA. Results suggested that conservation actors supported collaboration with external agencies but preferred a locally driven project. Landownership might determine engagement in pest management. Participants’ belief, resolution and objection to pest management were different across age groups. Engaging stakeholders provided further direction to explore the potential for a Predator Free Waiheke.

The ethics of genetic engineering and gene drives in conservation.

The ethical issues associated with using genetic engineering and gene drives in conservation are typically described as consisting of risk assessment and management, public engagement and acceptance, opportunity costs, risk and benefit distributions, and oversight. These are important, but the ethical concerns extend beyond them because the use of genetic engineering has the potential to significantly alter the practices, concepts, and value commitments of conservation. I sought to elucidate the broader set of ethical issues connected with a potential genetic engineering turn in conservation and provide an approach to ethical analysis of novel conservation technologies. The primary rationales offered in support of using genetic engineering and gene drives in conservation are efficiency and necessity for achieving conservation goals. The instrumentalist ethical perspective associated with these rationales involves assessing novel technologies as a means to accomplish desired ends. For powerful emerging technologies the instrumentalist perspective needs to be complemented by a form-of-life perspective frequently applied in the philosophy of technology. The form-of-life perspective involves considering how novel technologies restructure the activities into which they are introduced. When the form-of-life perspective is applied to creative genetic engineering in conservation, it brings into focus a set of ethical issues, such as those associated with power, meaning, relationships, and values, that are not captured by the instrumentalist perspective. It also illuminates why the use of gene drives in conservation is so ethically and philosophically interesting.

Non‐native species are a global issue for marine protected areas

The global extent of marine protected areas (MPAs) is increasing as nations strive to meet UN conservation targets, yet non‐native species (NNS) are a critically overlooked stressor that threatens MPA conservation goals. Despite evidence that marine NNS affect protected species and habitats, there is limited understanding of the pervasiveness of this threat and the extent to which resource managers are responding to it. We disseminated a questionnaire targeting MPA practitioners and scientists to determine the overall state of knowledge and perception of NNS in MPAs. We received 151 responses from individuals in 47 countries and territories, including a total of 116 MPAs of which 73 were reported to have NNS present. Although NNS are a prevalent issue in MPAs and are the subject of some monitoring, management, and research, preventative measures are largely absent, so that more focused attention on NNS will be required to achieve conservation goals.

The non-market benefits of early and partial gains in managing threatened salmon.

Threatened species are increasingly dependent on conservation investments for persistence and recovery. Information that resource managers could use to evaluate investments–such as the public benefits arising from alternative conservation designs–is typically scarce because conservation benefits arise outside of conventional markets. Moreover, existing studies that measure the public benefits of conserving threatened species often do not measure the benefits from partial gains in species abundance that fall short of official recovery, or the benefits from achieving gains in species abundance that happen earlier in time. We report on a stated preference choice experiment designed to quantify the non-market benefits for conservation investments aimed at threatened Pacific Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) along the Oregon Coast (OC). Our results show that a program aimed at increasing numbers of returning salmon can generate sizable benefits of up to $518 million/y for an extra 100,000 returning fish, even if the species is not officially declared recovered. Moreover, while conservation investment strategies expected to achieve relatively rapid results are likely to have higher up-front costs, our results show that the public attaches substantial additional value of up to $277 million/y for achieving conservation goals quickly. Our results and approach can be used to price natural capital investments that lead to gains in returning salmon, and as inputs to evaluations of the benefits and costs from alternative conservation strategies.

Achieving conservation impact by shifting focus from human attitudes to behaviors.

Attitudes have been a commonly used psychological measure of program effectiveness in conservation social science research. The major limitation of this approach is that attitudes do not always translate into behavior and therefore may not provide an accurate assessment of program success. Given that achieving conservation goals generally relies on understanding and changing human behavior, we argue for the need to assess behavior rather than attitudes as an indicator of conservation outcomes. Psychological theory shows that attitudes and behavior are distinct, but related, concepts. Measuring conservation behaviors involves identifying the target behavior or behaviors and the optimal time to measure and then selecting the most appropriate method of measurement (i.e., direct observation, objective indicators, self-reported behavior, and behavioral intentions) that considers the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. We call for conservation programs to focus on influencing behavior rather than attitudes alone and encourage conservation practitioners and researchers to collect high-quality behavioral data to more effectively inform policy and programs.

Deconstructing compassionate conservation.

Compassionate conservation focuses on 4 tenets: first, do no harm; individuals matter; inclusivity of individual animals; and peaceful coexistence between humans and animals. Recently, compassionate conservation has been promoted as an alternative to conventional conservation philosophy. We believe examples presented by compassionate conservationists are deliberately or arbitrarily chosen to focus on mammals; inherently not compassionate; and offer ineffective conservation solutions. Compassionate conservation arbitrarily focuses on charismatic species, notably large predators and megaherbivores. The philosophy is not compassionate when it leaves invasive predators in the environment to cause harm to vastly more individuals of native species or uses the fear of harm by apex predators to terrorize mesopredators. Hindering the control of exotic species (megafauna, predators) in situ will not improve the conservation condition of the majority of biodiversity. The positions taken by so-called compassionate conservationists on particular species and on conservation actions could be extended to hinder other forms of conservation, including translocations, conservation fencing, and fertility control. Animal welfare is incredibly important to conservation, but ironically compassionate conservation does not offer the best welfare outcomes to animals and is often ineffective in achieving conservation goals. Consequently, compassionate conservation may threaten public and governmental support for conservation because of the limited understanding of conservation problems by the general public.

Conserving orangutans one classroom at a time: evaluating the effectiveness of a wildlife education program for school‐aged children in Indonesia

AbstractEnvironmental education is a cornerstone of many wildlife conservation programs, and measuring the impact of such education initiatives is imperative for evaluating their effectiveness in achieving conservation goals. For over 15 years, the Gunung Palung Orangutan Conservation Program (GPOCP) has been working to protect wild Bornean orangutans Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii living in and around Gunung Palung National Park in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. In 2015, we carried out a series of six Environmental Education Expeditions to communities in the remote districts surrounding the Park, engaging 1519 elementary (n = 770) and junior/senior high school (n = 749) students across 24 schools. Before and after engaging with our environmental education activities students were given surveys to assess their knowledge about and attitudes toward orangutans. We found that our educational activities led to 13.6–40.4% increases in student knowledge about orangutans and substantial shifts toward more positive attitudes about conservation, but that many students do not believe that they personally can make a difference. Empowerment may be a key need to link wildlife education to environmental action.

Spatial targeting of payments for ecosystem services to achieve conservation goals and promote social equity and economic impact

AbstractThe objective of this research was to identify optimal spatial targeting and distributions of a fixed PES (payment systems for ecosystem services) budget that achieves the three objectives of maximizing forest‐based carbon storage to improve cost efficiency, maximizing poverty alleviation to promote equity, and maximizing economic impact to encourage economic development. We used the Central and Southern Appalachian Region as a case study to develop a county‐level framework for identifying optimal county targets and optimal budget allocations for forest‐based carbon sequestration that addresses the three objectives. The results show that optimal budgets are more geographically widespread under the multiple‐objective priority scenarios than under the single‐objective of maximizing carbon cost efficiency, and the optimal spatial distributions of the four priority scenarios do not change appreciably across priority scenarios. The quantified relationships reveal that different priority weights among the priority scenarios yield both competitive trade‐offs and synergistic relationships between the objectives.

A network meta‐analysis of threats to South American fish biodiversity

AbstractWhile environmental alterations have made Homo sapiens the hyperkeystone species of the globe, biotic homogenization initiated a new era, the “Homogenocene.” Still, some terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in South America are considered pristine and wild, which can lead to a general faith that economic progress is consistent with conservation strategies, even without scientific support. We compiled anthropogenic threats to fish biodiversity in a hierarchical meta‐analysis, along with an evidence synthesis of threats related to biological invasions, based on peer‐reviewed research with the aim to represent the actual conservation status of the South American ichthyofauna. We highlighted human‐related threats and synergistic effects of biological invasions, climate change, environmental alterations (e.g., pollution, aquaculture and damming) and fisheries. Considering measures that reinforce novel alien fish (e.g., artificial hybrids or genetically modified) introductions, it became clear why an eventual increase in local or regional species richness is not always beneficial to aquaculture, biodiversity, human well‐being or nature. In fact, citizens in all societal roles, including scientists, should revise their concepts about threats to fish biodiversity. Environmental policies require more than taxonomic diagnostics to achieve conservation goals under an incompatible scenario of a multiplying number of fish species and biotic homogenization. We advocate for countries in South America using science‐based strategies useful to maintain their social and economic growth along with their “remaining nature.” We live a crucial moment when the government overlooks threats to biodiversity and uses agribusiness as the most acceptable manner of fuelling the economy.

Easement or public land? An economic analysis of different ownership modes for nature conservation measures in California

AbstractBiodiversity conservation requires space where conservation measures are implemented for a desired purpose. Setting land aside for conservation has been widely applied, while novel conservation modes (private–public partnerships, private multipurpose land management) may be fundamental to achieve conservation goals. We perform an economic analysis of the cost development for two conservation options in California, in‐fee and easements, from 1970 to today. We find that in‐fee options have lower costs than easements in the long run. While there are high costs of purchase for in‐fee, ultimately they even‐out or generate profits. Costs of easements continue growing exponentially overtaking costs of purchase. Sensitivity analysis shows increases in purchasing prices and opportunity costs positively influencing conservation costs, while increasing interest rates negatively influence them. The results suggest that easements are not yet an economically viable alternative for in‐fee conservation purchases. Our analysis is a first step to assess economic viability of choosing easements.

Foraging theory provides a useful framework for livestock predation management

A societal shift toward plant dominant diets and a reduction in livestock rearing could have broad social, environmental and conservation benefits. Livestock husbandry, however, has a wealthy cultural history, strong support and high consumer demand. It is therefore likely to continue as a major land use and conservation issue for predators. From a producer’s perspective, the primary goals of livestock protection are maximising, or at least maintaining, production by minimising losses and mitigating detriment to stock welfare. Lethal removal of predators remains a commonplace solution. Such management measures are questionable as they raise animal welfare and conservation concerns, risk inhibiting ecological processes, are often expensive, and in some circumstances, exacerbate livestock predation problems. Non-lethal alternatives can facilitate co-existence between livestock farmers and predators, ideally reducing the ecological impact of pastoralism and achieving conservation goals. The need for rigorous study of non-lethal approaches has however been recently highlighted. Tools and methods involved in livestock protection, as well as the theoretical basis of how we perceive and manage the problem, require deeper consideration. Non-lethal approaches require knowledgeable implementation and an effective decision making system is a prerequisite for successful practice. Livestock predation and its prevention are fundamentally influenced by the underlying principles of foraging ecology and risk theory. We propose that manipulating elements of Brown’s (1988) quitting harvest rate model provides a useful conceptual framework for reducing livestock predation and encouraging coexistence.

Bridging the knowledge-action gap: A case of research rapidly impacting recreational fisheries policy

Telemetry is being used to generate an unprecedented level of knowledge on the underwater environment, much of which is relevant to marine policy and management. Yet, examples of telemetry directly informing management practices are still rare or undocumented. Here we describe a case in which fish telemetry data were rapidly incorporated into recreational fisheries policy for Permit (Trachinotus falcatus) in Florida. The reproductive strategy of Permit involves forming large aggregations, during which time they are often targeted by recreational anglers. To protect Permit from overfishing, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission established regulations in 2011 to prohibit Permit harvest during May through July, based on knowledge of seasonal Permit reproductive status. However, an acoustic telemetry study initiated in 2016 revealed that spawning aggregations were forming prior to this period, during the month of April. This information had a rapid and definitive impact on fisheries management policy. Given the well-documented difficulties of incorporating new science and information into environmental decision-making, this case provides valuable insights into how the knowledge-action gap may be bridged. Many factors contributed to the rapid uptake of this telemetry-derived knowledge into management, including applied research funding and objectives, integrating managers and stakeholders into the research, rapid dissemination of preliminary data, plus well-established relationships amongst scientists, managers, and stakeholders mediated by a non-government organization, Bonefish & Tarpon Trust. These factors may serve as a basis for researchers and managers seeking to translate new research into management practice, improving research impact and achievement of conservation goals.

Sediment quality assessment as potential tool for the management of tropical estuarine protected areas in SW Atlantic, Brazil

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) represent a tool for conservation that is intended to protect marine and estuarine habitats, biodiversity, and ecological processes. Many MPAs, some of which include estuarine zones, are affected by contamination sources; the discharge of chemicals into aquatic systems results in sediment contamination, risks to benthic systems, and consequent negative effects on ecological function. This study evaluated sediment quality in estuaries located within the Mosaic of Marine Protected Areas of São Paulo State, Brazil (MMPASP) in austral winter and summer: the Verde River (RV), the Una do Prelado River (BU), the Guaraú River (GU), the Preto River (RP), and the Itanhaém River (ITA). Data on sediment chemistry (major and trace metals, as well as hydrocarbons) and whole-sediment toxicity in copepods and amphipods were associated with ecological indices of macrobenthic infaunal organisms in a weight-of-evidence approach meant to estimate the effects at the community level. Results revealed low-to-moderate levels of contamination, with higher concentrations detected at sites influenced by domestic effluent discharges (RP, ITA). Site-specific chemical contamination guidelines were in accordance with biological responses than threshold levels from international benchmarks, indicating a failure of these international criteria to predict effects. Sediments were toxic, and benthic descriptors corroborated these findings. The results reflected a pattern of environmental quality that ranged from relatively good conditions (RV, BU, GU) to poor environmental quality (RP, ITA). We concluded that benthic environments in the estuaries of the Central Shore Marine Protected Area (APAMLC) exhibit a good ecological status in general, but some sites are directly impacted by human activities and exhibit contamination levels associated with biological effects, thereby showing that some portions of these MPAs may be damaged by contamination. Environmental assessments based on the sediment quality triad (SQT) method provide suitable and reliable information on pollution within MPAs and can assist in establishing additional policies to control pollution sources and achieve conservation goals.

Compassionate versus consequentialist conservation.

Ethical treatment of wildlife and consideration of animal welfare have become important themes in conservation, but ethical perspectives on how best to protect wild animals and promote their welfare are diverse. There are advantages to the consequentialist harms ethical framework applied in managing wild herbivores for conservation purposes. To minimize harms while achieving conservation goals, we argue that overabundant wild herbivores should in many cases be managed through consumptive in situ killing. Advantages of this policy are that the negative welfare states imposed on animals last only a short time; remaining animals are not deprived of positive welfare states (e.g., linked to rearing offspring); poor welfare states of animals in overabundant populations are avoided (e.g., starvation); negative welfare impacts on heterospecifics through resource depletion (i.e., competition) are prevented; harvesting meat reduces the number of (agricultural) animals raised to supply meat; and minimal costs maximize funding for other wildlife management and conservation priorities. Alternative ethical approaches to our consequentialist framework include deontology (containing animal rights) and virtue ethics, some of which underpin compassionate conservation. These alternative ethical approaches emphasize the importance of avoiding intentional killing of animals but, if no population reduction occurs, are likely to impose considerable unintentional harms on overabundant wildlife and indirectly harm heterospecifics through ineffective population reduction. If nonlethal control is used, it is likely that overabundant animals would be deprived of positive welfare states and economic costs would be prohibitive. We encourage conservation stakeholders to consider animal-welfare consequentialism as an ethical approach to minimize harms to the animals under their care as well as other animals that policies may affect while at the same time pursuing conservation goals.