Achaemenid Research Articles

Towards a post-imperial and Global IR?: Revisiting Khatami’s Dialogue among Civilisations

Abstract This article argues that Dialogue among Civilisations can be put forward as a crucial contribution to debates addressing IR’s Eurocentrism. It highlights the blurring of West/non-West, domestic/international, and imperial/post-imperial bifurcations. This is evident in three ways. First, Dialogue among Civilisations needs to be appreciated in Iran’s wider historical context and its multifaceted intellectual heritages. This demonstrates that the idea of the West as distinctly different from the East is problematic because of engagement between Iran and the so-called West. Second, Khatami’s intellectual endeavours are based on a simultaneous engagement with Western political thought, Islamic philosophy, and the idea of Ancient Iran. Finally, the notion itself reflects an internal dialogue whereby Western civilisation along with Islam and Iran’s pre-Islamic heritages are considered integral to Iranian political culture. Furthermore, it is an aspiration for how post-colonial Muslim societies can engage with colonial power while maintaining a post-colonial authenticity. Our contention is that an in-depth understanding of Iran alongside a revisiting of Khatami’s Dialogue among Civilisations can act as a means of bringing the perspective of the ‘other’ into debates on the international and our epistemological and ontological understanding of the West.

The Forerunner of Axial Period: The Scattered Spirit of Achaemenid Dynasty in Persia

The Forerunner of Axial Period: The Scattered Spirit of Achaemenid Dynasty in Persia

A Walk through the Iranian Heavens: Spherical and NonSpherical Cosmographic Models in the Imagination of Ancient Iran and Its Neighbors by Antonio C. D. Panaino

A Walk through the Iranian Heavens is an innovative and focused study by the well-known scholar Antonio Panaino. This monograph looks at cosmography in ancient Iran and adjacent cultures, with attention to the problem of sphericity in antiquity. We might take for granted that the Greeks, after a point, operated with the model of a spherical Earth, but what about Iran, which had its own Mazdean mythology and worldview but was still influenced by Hellenic culture? At what point did ancient Iran become exposed to and/or adopt a spherical Earth as well as the model of a cosmic sphere? How did this model of the universe affect the Zoroastrian worldview? These are the questions that come to mind when approaching A Walk through the Iranian Heavens.

Funeral Rites of the Alans and Persians: Convergences and Interpretations

The article analyzes the features of the funeral rites of the Alans and Persians in the context of the evolution of their religious worldview under the influence of economic, social and cultural external and internal factors. Studies of the ancient funeral rites of representatives of the all-Iranian world - Alans and Persians, allow us to better understand its deep meaning, and the revealed parallels in the ritual and spiritual practices of the Alanian and ancient Persian funeral cultures, as well as convergences in religious ideas, can contribute to the reconstruction of Indo-Iranian culture in general. The article analyzes the methods of burial among the Alans and Persians with the involvement of ethnographic, archaeological and written sources. The study of archaeological materials of ancient Persian and Alanian origin makes possible to establish a number of religious pre-Zoroastrian features of the ancient Iranians and to identify similarities in the funeral rites of the two ethnic groups. An important aspect of the problem is the influence of Zoroastrianism on cultural landmarks and religious beliefs. Some cult representations of the Indo-Iranians of the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, which are reflected in funeral rites, are also defined .The revealed convergences are an echo of the culture of the all-Iranian world, they may also be the result of contacts between the Persians and the Alanian elite. The article also attempts to identify a common religious interpretation of some elements of the Alanian and Persian funeral rites, as well as to establish their continuity in relation to the modern funeral practices of the peoples being studied. It is assumed that the study will contribute both to the solution of the important task of reconstructing the pan-Iranian cultural world and identifying Alan-Persian cultural contacts.

An Investigation into the Relationship between Diaspora and Identity with Reference to the Iranian Diaspora

Abstract The purpose of this article is to examine the relationship between diaspora and identity with reference to the Iranian diaspora as a case study. Although there has been a recent growth in the study of ideational factors and their effects on sociopolitical issues, identity remains understudied within the mainstream literature on diaspora studies, international relations (IR) and foreign policy analysis (FPA). The aim is to challenge the purely realist and power-based explanations that have dominated the discourse by introducing the notion of identity and exploring it in relation to the Iranian diaspora. The paper’s novel approach lies in its categorisation of Iranian diaspora identity into three main components: nationalist (ancient Iran) tendencies, religious (Islamic-Shiite) tendencies and secular (Western) tendencies. The identity components of Iranians abroad and their interaction with the homeland are relatively comparable to those of their compatriots at home, showing intersecting areas of commonality and difference.

Early Iranian Riders and Cavarly

The expansion of the Iranian peoples in first centuries of the 1st millennium BCE coincides with the creation and further development of the cavalry warfare in western Eurasia, as well as with the creation of the pastoral nomadic life-style which dominated the Great Steppe for millennia to come. The mounted warriors replaced the light chariots which dominated the Bronze Age battlefields which required perfect horsemanship however application of the recurved, double reflex. composite bow for mounted combat seemed another important factor in development of the cavalry force. Mounted archery which doubled the fire power of the mobile troops, earlier dominated by the chariots triggered the evolution of the various forms of cavalry, both as a response to a threat of the horse archers and independent forces used by the sedentary societies. Iranian contribution in spreading (and most likely invention) of the new technology is undeniable. Although horse riding and recurved composite bows were known earlier they could not overcome the power of the chariot force separately. Only the combination of the factors allowed fielding large and efficient cavalry troops as was practiced by the Scythians and became the success factor for the Achaemenid Empire. Survival of the chariots as late as the Seleucid times was possible because of changing their tactical function from the highly mobile shooting platform to heavy, at least partially, armored terror and shock weapon.

Creation in Ancient Elam based on Royal Elamite Inscriptions and Rock Reliefs

Royal Elamite inscriptions offer valuable insights into a range of themes related to ancient Iran. However, to date, no Elamite creation myth has been recovered. Nonetheless, there exist indirect references in the inscriptions and rock reliefs that can be used to reconstruct such an account. This study aims to partially reconstruct the Elamite genesis by examining the linguistic and iconographical clues. It is important to note, however, that this primary investigation provides only limited insights into the creation myth in ancient Elam.

Սրբազան արժեքներ՝ մեղեդային շնչով. զրադաշտական տեքստերի երաժշտական ոգին

Analyzing a number of evidences of Zoroastrian melodies, the earliest manifestations of Iranian ancient culture and especially music, we can state that we are talking about ancient sources in Persian music, which were created under the influence of religious prayers and became an integral part of the culture. Zoroastrian traditions, including traditions of musical and poetic art, were preserved or transformed under the conditions of the common Indo-Iranian cultural complex. And the Zoroastrian musical tradition was interconnected with the social structure of the society and the changes in it. The holy book of religion, Avesta is not only a religious, cultural, legal source, but also a source, the texts of which became the basis for new religious songs. These works were performed during religious rituals and were originally the monopoly of the priests. As in religion, so in Zoroastrian melodies, the themes relate to justice and light and have reached the present day. The most prominent of the melodies are based on the famous "Mantras" from the Gathas, performed to the accompaniment of various instruments, of which the role of the trumpet, an instrument used by the semi-mythical Yima, is symbolic. Some researchers conclude that even thanks to the Avesta, a special musical language was formed, its intonation features were updated and enriched. And the tradition of singing the sacred texts of the Avesta stimulated the development of vocals and the entire musical culture, which flourished during the Achaemenid dynasty, when musicians were considered representatives of a worthy class, and it continued under the Sassanids, reaching its peak. Musicians working in the Persian court continued the rich musical traditions. We referred to the activities of Barbad Mervezi, a famous musician, poet, nightingale of Iran, who had a series of songs for the days of the Zoroastrian calendar. And one of the recent researches shows that the most famous Zoroastrian singer, the prophet Zarathustra, sang hymns from the Avesta using 4 different musical methods. Zoroastrian music survived until the Middle Ages, and Nizam's mentions of the presence of Zoroastrian melodies in the repertoire of court musicians are a vivid evidence.

Achaemenid Settlement in Shiraz Plain: Tol-e Sefid Sadra

Shiraz plain is one of the most important plains adjacent to Persepolis. Tirazziš place have been mentioned in the Persepolis Archives many times. For further research on the place name of modern Shiraz with what is mentioned in the Achaemenid’s Archives, it was necessary to carried out an archeological survey in this plain. Objective and methodical archeological researches had not been carried out in the Shiraz plain until 2008. In the process of this new methodical archaeological survey, one of the most important ancient sites of the Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid periods was identified in the Shiraz plain. According to the ceramic documents, this site was inhabited in the Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid periods. Shiraz is mentioned in the Persepolis Archives under the Elamite form Tirazziš. This site attests to the situation of the Shiraz plain in the Achaemenid and Post-Achaemenid periods. The introduction of this ancient site provides a new perspective to understand the relationship between the Shiraz plain in the Achaemenid period and its connection with Persepolis.

Cremation in Elamite period (Sukkalmah): Hirbodan site

Every region and period have its own characteristics when it comes to burial, which is considered a part of spiritual and material culture. Since burial practices are influenced by society's thoughts, beliefs, and culture, studying them can help reconstruct the evolution of ancient culture. Large parts of Iran were considered the territory of the Elamite civilisation from about 2700 BCE until the beginning of the Achaemenid empire. While various studies have been conducted on the cultural materials of this period, burial methods, especially in the old Elamite period, remain unknown. The evidence of cremation is one of unique features that could be observed among burying ritual in each society. Based on the findings, this article describes the evidence for cremation in the Old Elamite period in south of Iran. In Hirbodan, a burial was buried in a crouching position and burned with wood sticks. It can be concluded from the burn marks on the skeleton and the soil beneath the body, that the body had been burned inside the grave before being covered in soil. This burial is associated with the period of old Elamite and with the reign of the Sukkalmah dynasty based on the analysis of pottery and C14 results.

Greece and Yehud in the Achaemenid Period: The Background of Cultural Transfer

ABSTRACT The paper aims to analyze the circumstances of cultural transfer between the Southern Levant and Greece in the Achaemenid period in order to assess the plausibility of Greek influences on the Hebrew Bible. First, the article addresses the theoretical question of possible “contact zones” between Greek and Levantine cultures. Second, it presents evidence of Greek presence in the Ancient Near East in that epoch. Third, it tries to estimate the possible extent of Greek influence in the Southern Levant. The next question to discuss is the presence of Levantines in Mainland Greece and the meaning of this phenomenon for understanding the situation in Yehud. Finally, the paper deals with the question of the mobility of the inhabitants of Yehud. In conclusion, the authors wonder whether the collected data allow for the creation of a coherent model of intercultural exchange between Greece and Yehud, as postulated by some scholars.

Sogdian Dahai and the Formation of the Arsacid State

Key words: the Aparns, the Xanthi, the Pissurs, the Achaemenids, Parthia, Soghdiana, Bactria, Strabo, Arshak I, Diodotos I, Evtidemos I At the beginning of 4th century BC, the Dahai tribes of the Xanthi and Pissurs were ousted from the steppes of left bank of Amu Darya’s delta by newly independent Khorezm. They received from the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II a new migration area in Soghdiana, in the Zeravshan basin. As a result of this resettlement, the three-tribal union of Dahai practically split into two parts. Their traditional connections and centralized control system were broken. The Sogdian Dahai adapted to the satrapy administration of Bactria and remained loyal to the Achaemenid dynasty until the end. However, in 327 BC, after the establishment of Macedonian rule in Soghd, their condition began to deteriorate. The policy of tight control over the nomads by the Macedonian administration of the “Upper satrapies” changed the previously normal and mutually beneficial coexistence of the nomadic and settled population of the oases into hostile relations. The condition of the Sogdian Dahai especially deteriorated during the reign of the Bactrian king Diodotos I, and after the reign of Evtidemos I (225 BC) it became hopeless. An important impetus for their migration to the eastern shores of the Amu Darya was the call for help from King Arshak I, the leader of the Apars tribe. After the first unsuccessful attempt to conquer Parthia, the latter faced the task of expanding its social base, which, in fact, he could only do by resettling kindred Dahai tribes. The resettlement of the Sogdian Dahai, or, as Justinian calls them, “the ones expelled from Scythia” to the “country opposite to Areia” began gradually, and most of them settled here after 217 BC, the period when Arshak I conquered Parthia for the second time. After more than a century of separation, the two parts of the Dahai Union reunited again, but in new administrative and political realities, under the royal rule of Arshak I, the leader of the Apars. The immigration of the Xanthi and the Pissurs sharply increased the military potential of Arshak I, due to which he not only conquered Hyrcania in a short time, but also opposed the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. On the other hand, participation in the Arsacid State formation and the Dahai’s dominance preservation over the population of Parthia and Hyrcania, provided the tribal lider clans of Xanthi and the Pissurs with the right and opportunity to claim a high position in the newly created socio-political system of the Arsacid State.

Investigating the representation of the Lydian delegation in the reliefs of the eastern staircase of Apadana (case study: vessels and jewellery)

The eastern staircase of Apadana – the Royal Achaemenid Audience Hall at Persepolis was decorated with numerous reliefs depicting various people subjected to the king’s rule, paying homage and bringing gifts. Among these, the Lydian group is one of the delegations carved in the lower part of the staircase. This group was led by one of the officers of the Achaemenid court. The participants carried amphorae, bowls and armlets and were also bringing horses and a chariot. The amphorae and arm rings were represented distinctly with beautiful and unique animal decorations. The purpose of the following research was to identify the metal prototypes of the goods represented as carried by the Lydian group (amphorae, bowls, arm rings) and to illustrate them with artefacts housed in important museums of the world. This research was carried out by descriptive, analytical, comparative and field visit methods. It also used the method of referring to domestic museums and websites of foreign museums, reviewing documents and historical texts. The research concludes that the gifts carried by the Lydian group on the eastern staircase of Apadana, including amphorae, bowls and arm rings, had ceremonial usage, sometimes also being used in important court parties. Animal decorations in the form of griffins were used on the handles of amphorae and rings, which have their roots in the mythology of ancient Iran and other Achaemenid nations. Achaemenid artists developed it after modelling this type of decoration from other nations. This type of decoration (griffin) has been used to decorate jewellery, luxury items, seals, textiles, reliefs etc. The goods carried by the Lydian group as represented on the eastern staircase and some of its metal prototypes were used by the wealthy class of Iranian society in the Achaemenid period.

Representation of History of Ancient Iran in First Pahlavi King Discourse (1925- 1941) to Build a Territorial Identity in the Framework of Governmentality Concept

Within the framework of the governmentality idea, the territorial identity consists of a group of symbols and procedures that are expressed in a particular period of history and given precedence over other symbols. According to this perspective, the national identity is not just a natural phenomenon but rather something that the political establishment builds over time and stabilizes as a communal memory, with the possibility that it will be rebuilt in the future. The goal of the current research is to examine how Iranian territorial identity developed during the First Pahlavi era, from 1925 to 1941, using the theoretical framework of the discourse of governmentality. The findings indicate that the construction of the national identity in the First Pahlavi era has been based on the unifying interpretation of the history of ancient Iran in the direction of solidarity of ethnic groups and social classes. According to this supposition, charismatic leadership was the only thing that could ensure spatial justice between the various ethnic and social groups. Through the nation’s and the territory’s adaptation to space, this element could also stabilize the Iranian people’s territorial identity.

“The Turquoise Was Brought From Chorasmia” Mining, Empire, and the People of the Steppes across the Achaemenid Northeastern Borderlands

Abstract Two main scholarly trends dominate the study of the relations between the Northeastern frontier zone(s) of the Achaemenid Empire and the steppes: the assessment of the military strategies to control the Saka and the development of artistic currents within and beyond the Empire through diplomatic relations and gift-giving. This paper makes the case for a more complex and dynamic scenario, in which the Central Asian borderlands transpire to have been a fertile ground for experimentation and innovation (not only of strife and rebellion), while local actors are given back their agency. In doing so, it first of all focuses on the extraction and working of precious stones. Secondly, recent research on Achaemenid archival materials shall be discussed which suggest the importance of trade in these and similar items for both imperial agents and local elites. Thirdly, and finally, the paper considers material evidence originating from the Empire but found beyond its Northeastern territories as far as China.

To What Extent does Herodotus Histories Indicate the Achaemenid Persian Empires Success in Administration and Organization?

Herodotus Histories is one of the first works of history (Momigliano) and serves as a record of the ethnic groups, cultures, and events from around the Mediterranean and in West Asia and North Africa from mythological antiquity to around the Greco-Persian Wars. Because it is founded on the tradition of oral storytelling, bias, myth, misinformation, and judgment are apparent throughout. Therefore, this paper aims to examine Herodotus rhetoric and evaluate to what extent the Achaemenid Persian Empire was successful, as indicated by his description. This is done by analyzing the flaws and biases in Herodotus writing and then analyzing the Achaemenid system of governance, physical infrastructure, and failures in the Ionian Revolt. The paper concludes that although Herodotus highlights the shortcomings of Persian administrators, the overall competence of the regime seen in the descriptions outweighs its flaws.

Reverberations of Persepolis: Persianist Readings of Late Roman Wall Decoration

Animal combats (venationes) were a popular entertainment in the Roman world. Splashy panels of inlaid marble (opus sectile) commemorate these bloody contests in several buildings in and around Rome. Among the most well-known are survivals from the 4th century CE Basilica of Junius Bassus and, several decades later, the marble-revetted hall from Porta Marina at Ostia. On the face of it, the wall decoration from these sites memorializes typical Roman activities, but the panels expose the vast geography implicated in these combat spectacles. The brilliant stones used to render them came from lands as far off as the Caspian tigers and Asiatic lions they depicted. The iconography of the panels was also foreign: the animal combat, or symplegma (intertwining), is seen on works from pre-Achaemenid sculpture to Sasanian textiles, and most recognizably, at the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis, where a lion attacks a bull in relief on the Apadana stairway. Reading these panels through a Persianist lens illuminates the ways in which the Persepolitan model animated Roman themes and visual programs. Though they recalled events in the Roman arena, they also imparted political and astrological signification to the decoration by means of their Persian associations. By alluding to the Achaemenid empire, a great power of the past and a continuing rival in the form of the Sasanians, the Roman patron accrued to himself some measure of the veneration for this culture and showed himself able to communicate in an idiom legible to an international clientele.

The technology, management, and culture of water in ancient Iran from prehistoric times to the Islamic Golden Age

Despite Iran’s longstanding reputation for sustainable water management, the country currently faces mounting water-related challenges caused by population growth, industrial development, urban sprawl, lifestyle changes, climate change, territorial conflicts, poor management, and insufficient public participation. Since past and present water-related challenges share similar origins and patterns, addressing the past is imperative. After gathering, contextualizing, verifying, clustering, coding, and corroborating sources, we conducted a historical study to examine the relationship between water and Iranians from prehistoric times to the Islamic Golden Age (1219 AD). According to the findings, in prehistoric Iran, drought, flooding, river course changes, and the absence of a central government severely impacted water development. Despite doubts about the qanat’s origin, archaeological investigations indicate in the proto-historical period, qanat systems existed in Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. In 550 BC, the Achaemenids initiated a fundamental transformation in Iran’s water history by building dams, qanats, and water canals under a centralized administration. After a slump during the Seleucids (312–63 BC) and the Parthians (247 BC–224 AD), Iranians practiced water governance reborn under the Sassanids (224–651 AD). The Sassanids, like the Achaemenids, formed a powerful statement of unity, cooperation, and support among people for implementing their major water-related plans after enhancing institutions, laws, and communications. Chaotic Iran, however, endured severe water-related weaknesses in the Late Sassanids. Throughout the Islamic Golden Age, Iranians successfully traded water knowledge with other nations. As seen today in Iran, the Iranians have been unable to thrive on their resources since the Mongol invasion due to weak water governance, political tensions, and poor public support. The water sectors face more severe challenges when ancient water systems are ignored, applied without enhancement, or blindly adopted from other nations. Therefore, before current problems worsen, it is essential to integrate traditional and modern water cultures, technology, and management techniques.

Aramaic: A History of the First World Language by Holger Gzella

Reviewed by: Aramaic: A History of the First World Language by Holger Gzella Jessie Degrado holger gzella, Aramaic: A History of the First World Language (trans. Benjamin D. Suchard; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2021). Pp. xii + 359. $70. Aramaic: A History of the First World Language is the recent translation with updated bibliography of a volume first published in Dutch in 2017. In the work, Gzella sets himself a monumental task: to present the history of Aramaic over three thousand years without presuming prior knowledge of any Semitic language. Since the work is a popularization of G.'s A Cultural Atlas of Aramaic (HdO 111; Leiden: Brill, 2015), readers with a background in Semitic languages may prefer to consult that volume and, especially, important reviews by Charles Häberl (JAOS 139 [2019] 714–17) and Steven Kaufman ("Notes on A Cultural History of Aramaic" [Aramaic Studies Today, 2017, https://blog.huc.edu/cal/a-culturalhistory-of-aramaic/]). Given the popular focus of the work, this review will focus primarily on its conceptual and historical claims. In chap. 1, G. provides an overview of the history of academic Aramaic studies and some basic features of early Aramaic. In this section, the difficulty of writing a popular history of Aramaic becomes clear: readers with no background in Aramaic will likely struggle to parse the technical details. On the other hand, more experienced readers may be frustrated by the lack of support for several claims, such as the assertion that the lowering of the short vowel i to e obtains in all Aramaic dialects. In fact, the Aramaic name Māti'-'il is consistently written as {ma-ti-' -dingir} (with ti rather than te) in a ninth-century treaty (SAA 2 2), indicating that this phonological process likely postdates Old Aramaic. The next two chapters trace the development and uses of Aramaic in the first millennium b.c.e. Chapter 2 covers the initial phases of the written language, Old Aramaic (OA)—first attested in monumental inscriptions from Syrian kingdoms in the ninth and eighth centuries b.c.e. Chapter 3 outlines the use of Aramaic by first-millennium empires, from its role as a lingua franca in the Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian periods to the development of Imperial Aramaic, a standardized dialect with its own orthographic conventions, employed as the administrative language of the Achaemenid empire. These two chapters highlight an important trend in the history of Aramaic, namely, processes that lead to standardization of dialects in writing. G. gives the impression that this was a highly organized and agentive process, attributable to the reign of a single ruler or even a specific year. For OA, G.'s reconstruction requires sidelining texts that do not adhere to the alleged standardization (Neirab stelae, Deir Alla, and Tell Fekheriye). In addition, Sam'alian, a dialect from Zincirli, is not considered Aramaic (cf. the more recent treatment in Federico Giusfredi and Valerio Pisaniello, "The Population, the Language and the History of Yadiya/Sam'al," in Beyond All Boundaries: Anatolia in the 1st Millennium BC [OBO 295; Leuven: Peeters, 2021] 189–223). In other words, OA appears homogeneous only when all texts attesting to its heterogeneity have been dismissed as anomalous or reclassified as not Aramaic. The next two chapters on Aramaic in late antiquity illustrate the reverse process of linguistic standardization, that is, the movement toward recording the diversity of vernacular speech. G. covers the use of Aramaic in the southern Levant (biblical texts and Qumran), and the development of distinct dialects including Palmyrene, Hatran, and Arascid Aramaic. A substantial portion of chap. 4 is devoted to the assertion that Hebrew was no longer spoken as a vernacular after 400 b.c.e. and had lost all communicative function by the second [End Page 337] century c.e. This requires special pleading, given corpora such as the Bar Kokhba letters and tomb inscriptions from Bet Shearim and Jaffa, which indicate that Hebrew was likely spoken through the second century and used in inscriptions through the fourth century (see Y. Elitzur, "Epigraphic Hebrew: Roman and Byzantine Period," in Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics [ed. Geoffrey Khan; 4 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 2003] 1:843–51). More significantly...

Pre-Islamic religious motifs (550 BC to 651 AD) on Iranian minor art with focus on rug motifs

This article reviewed the influence of pre-Islamic religions such as Mithraism and Zoroastrianism on decorative elements of ancient Persian rugs. The article then evaluated the effect of the Islamic religion on Persian rugs. This was examined through extant evidence from pre–Islamic empire artefacts and publications in Persian carpet history, iconography and religious studies. Using spiritual motifs on some ancient rugs results from the important position of rugs in ancient Iranians’ lives. Believing the existence of religious motifs on Persian carpets is because the first carpet in history (Pazyryk) was attributed to the ancient Achaemenians, decorated with symbolic motifs from Mithraism and Zoroastrianism. Pazyryk shows how rug-weaving evolved during the Achaemenids, and it represented spiritual foundations through visual concepts. This article reviewed the symbolic Persian rug motifs from ancient religions through Pazyryk, with support from museum collections. With the emergence of religions, these effects are seen in all aspects of life, including the production of rug design.Contribution: The main contribution of this research was that it investigated the effects of religion on Persian art focusing on the Persian rug. The findings showed that religion had directly influenced the decorative motifs of the Persian rug among high-class families that might have cascaded into visual elements found on commoners’ rugs.