Dimensional Accuracy Research Articles

Achieving high robust aluminum alloy annular laser directed energy deposition based on thermal field assistance system

High thermal conductivity and large fluctuations in laser absorptivity with temperature make aluminum alloy prone to deformations, collapses, spheroidization, and other defects during directed energy deposition (DED) processes. To achieve stable and high-quality annular laser DED (AL-DED) of aluminum alloy, an in situ thermal field assistance system was designed, wherein a preheating-cooling temperature control thermal balance model was established. The thermal field assistance system effect during the AL-DED process of AlSi10Mg has been evaluated, and the control ability of the thermal balance model on absorptivity and temperature field has been analyzed. A continuous 500-layer AL-DED forming of the aluminum alloy was conducted. The results indicate that the in situ thermal field assistance control system can achieve thermal balance during the aluminum alloy component AL-DED process, causing stable laser absorption rate and uniform temperature fields, while reducing surface roughness of components to 2.3 μm. The microstructure and elemental distribution were uniform, transforming the Al–Si eutectic structure from a mesh-like to a dispersed distribution and, consequently, achieving the deposition of a 500-layer, 2.0 mm-thick Al thin-walled component with high dimensional accuracy and stability. This thermal field assistance system effectively improves the stability of absorptivity and the thermal field, providing novel ideas for high-quality AL-DED additive manufacturing of materials sensitive to thermal fields and large absorptivity fluctuations, such as aluminum and copper.

Microstructural Organization and Mechanical Properties of 5356 Aluminum Alloy Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Under Low Heat Input Conditions

This study examines the microstructure and mechanical properties of 5356 aluminum alloy under low heat input conditions during arc additive manufacturing, focusing on the challenges posed by excessive heat input, which hinders specimen formation and affects dimensional accuracy. The study analyzes the characteristics of single-pass multilayer straight-walled specimens fabricated under varying low heat input conditions, along with evaluations of their mechanical properties, including their microstructure, microhardness, and tensile strength. This study demonstrates that as the heat input increases from 87.5 J/mm to 190.0 J/mm, the width of the vertical wall specimens increases significantly, whereas the change in single-layer height remains minimal. The specimen width increases from 5.22 mm to 8.87 mm, representing a change of 3.65 mm, while the single-layer height increases by only 0.16 mm. The microstructure primarily consists of the α(Al) matrix and the skeletal β(Al3Mg2) phase. As heat input increases, some of the β(Al3Mg2) phase dissolves, resulting in a decrease in its distribution density, a reduction in its quantity, and an increase in its size. The average hardness increases from 69.40 HV at 87.5 J/mm to 77.89 HV at 154.2 J/mm, before decreasing to 73.56 HV at 190.0 J/mm. As the heat input increases, the tensile strength and elongation of both horizontal and vertical specimens initially increase and then decrease. The tensile strength and elongation of the horizontal specimens are slightly greater than those of the vertical specimens. The microstructure and mechanical properties vary across different regions. In the upper region, the β(Al3Mg2) phase is uniformly distributed, with high density and small size. The fracture surface exhibits fine, uniform dimples, displaying the best microhardness and mechanical properties, with a tensile strength of 245.88 MPa. In the middle region, the distribution density of the β phase decreases, the size increases, and the dimples become slightly coarser. Consequently, the microhardness and mechanical properties decline. At the bottom, due to the higher cooling rates, the β phase does not dissolve significantly. The distribution density is high, the dimples are large and uneven, and the microhardness and mechanical properties are the lowest, with a tensile strength of 236.00 MPa.

Micro-engraving on modified nickel-base superalloy using a short-pulsed laser source

ABSTRACT The modified nickel-base superalloy is micro-engraved with short pulsed laser with different parameter. The dimensional accuracy of the micro-profiles engraved through laser energy is evaluated through a scanning electron microscope. For the minimum speed of 50 mm per sec, the profile length and breadth have high dimensional stability compared to the average and high scan speed. The optical microscope is used to measure the depth of the micro-profile and the same has been metallurgically processed to read the microstructural changes. A maximum depth of 632 µm for the micro-profile is found with a maximum scan speed of 100 mm per sec at a low power of 2 watts and an average laser frequency of 7 kHz. Therefore, the input process parameters are invariant for the different responses on micro-engraving.

Efficient fabrication of zero taper µ-electrode using novel dry µ-electrical discharge turning

Micromachining is essential for producing components smaller than 1000 µm and is increasingly significant due to the trend toward miniaturizing industrial products. Tool-based micromachining techniques like µ-turning, µ-grinding, µ-EDM, and µ-ECM offer benefits in productivity, efficiency, adaptability, and cost-effectiveness. Modern industrial products require high dimensional accuracy and superior surface finishes. µ-EDM is particularly promising for economically producing complex microfeatures with high precision. However, the high tool wear rate in µ-EDM requires on-machine microelectrode fabrication, which is essential for creating micro-sized holes and channels during µ-EDM operations. A major challenge lies in achieving high dimensional accuracy and minimal taper in microelectrodes. Additionally, there are health concerns related to hydrocarbons produced from liquid dielectrics. This research explores fabrication of microelectrodes using dry µ-ED Turning. Five machining strategies were employed, using stationary block electrical discharge turning (SB-EDT), moving block electrical discharge turning (MB-EDT), and their combinations to produce microelectrodes with improved surface finishes and minimal taper. Gaseous dielectrics significantly reduce harmful emissions and contamination, creating a safer working environment while minimizing environmental pollution. The taper issue was significantly mitigated in microelectrodes fabricated using MB-EDTd, achieving nearly zero taper with a surface finish of 2.04 µm. MB-EDTd also achieved highest material removal rate, producing a microelectrode with an average diameter of 428 µm. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs and surface finish analyses were conducted to examine the effects of various parameters, such as discharge currents and linear feed speed. The findings highlight the potential of µ-EDM with gaseous dielectrics to enhance microelectrode fabrication process.

Investigation on geometric, dimensional accuracy and surface roughness for 3D printed PLA via fused deposition modelling (FDM) process

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an advanced additive manufacturing technique known for its precision and repeatability, extensively applied in producing automotive and industrial components. This study employs the Taguchi L9 orthogonal array (OA) approach to optimize process parameters for minimizing dimensional inaccuracies, geometric deviations, and surface roughness (Ra) in polylactic acid (PLA) specimens fabricated as per ASTM D638 Type V standards. Four critical printing parameters: extrusion temperature (ET), infill pattern (Ip), print rate (Rp), and layer height (LH) are investigated, focusing on specimen thickness (Ts), width of the grip section (Wgs), overall length (OL), circularity (Circ), cylindricity (Cyl), surface roughness (Ra), and waviness (Wa). Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio analysis identified optimal parameter combinations, revealing that Ip, ET, and Rp significantly influence circularity by 39.24%, 37.34%, and 15.19%, respectively. One of the important factors that affect the degree of inaccuracy in cylindricity is the Ip. Gyroid pattern generated the least amount of inaccuracy out of all the patterns that were tested. Layer height (LH) at 0.1 mm was the most critical factor affecting Ra and Wa, while an extrusion temperature of 215°C predominantly influenced Ts. The Ip has the most affected the grip section width. In contrast to expectation, the triangle Ip achieved the minimum width error that was 0.3384%. The Rp of 40 mm/s has the highest impact on the OL deviations. Out of all the other patterns, the Tri-Hexagon (Ip) has made the least contribution to the OL deviations. Rp exhibited a lower contribution to Ra (2.35%) and Wa (12.45%). The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the Taguchi approach in identifying optimal process setups for enhancing the precision, geometric accuracy, and surface quality of 3D-printed specimens.

Optimization of 3D Printing Nozzle Parameters and the Optimal Combination of 3D Printer Process Parameters for Engineering Plastics with High Melting Points and Large Thermal Expansion Coefficients

Three-dimensional printing is a transformative technology in the manufacturing industry which provides customization and cost-effectiveness for all walks of life due to its fast molding speed, high material utilization, and direct molding of arbitrary complex structural parts. This study aims to improve the molding accuracy of 3D printed polyether ether ketone (PEEK) samples by systematically studying key process parameters, including printing speed, layer thickness, nozzle temperature, and filling rate. The 3D printing nozzle has an important impact on the extrusion rate of the melt, and the fluid simulation of the nozzle was carried out to explore the variation characteristics of the melt flow rate in the nozzle and optimize the nozzle structure parameters. In order to effectively optimize the process, considering its inherent efficiency, robustness, and cost-effectiveness, the L9 orthogonal array experimental design scheme was used to analyze the effects of printing speed, layer thickness, nozzle temperature, and filling rate on the molding accuracy of the test sample, and the optimal combination of process parameters was optimized through the comprehensive weighted scoring method so as to improve the molding accuracy of the 3D printed PEEK sample; finally, the molding accuracy of the components printed using the Sermoon-M1 3D printer with the optimized nozzle structure was printed. The results show that the nozzle structure is optimal when the convergence angle is 120° and the aspect ratio is 2, and the outlet cross-section velocity is increased by 2.5% and 2.7%, respectively. The order of influence strength on the dimensional accuracy of the test sample is layer thickness > filling rate > nozzle temperature > printing speed. The optimal combination of parameters is: a printing speed of 15 mm/s, a layer thickness of 0.1 mm, a nozzle temperature of 420 °C, and a filling rate of 50%. The insights derived from this study pave the way for predicting and implementing the selection of optimal process parameters in the production of 3D printed products, with important implications for the optimal molding accuracy of printed components.

Review on image registration methods for the quality control in additive manufacturing

Abstract A critical challenge in Additive Manufacturing is to ensure the safety and dimensional accuracy of produced parts. Since quality control is made by means of different online and offline imaging techniques (e.g. Thermography, X-ray and Optical Computer Tomography), image registration plays an important role in addressing these challenges. This paper introduces the main motivation, challenges, and research gaps of image registration in Additive Manufacturing. Furthermore, it introduces the main transformations, registration methods, similarity matrices and accuracy measurement. The main aim of the paper is to present a comprehensive review on the available methods for image registration in Additive Manufacturing based on the measurement techniques. Various registration methods, including landmark-based, point cloud-based, image intensity-based, and shape-based techniques, are examined in their applications for quality control, defect detection, and distortion quantification.

3D-Printed Myocardium-Specific Structure Enhances Maturation and Therapeutic Efficacy of Engineered Heart Tissue in Myocardial Infarction.

Despite advancements in engineered heart tissue (EHT), challenges persist in achieving accurate dimensional accuracy of scaffolds and maturing human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs), a primary source of functional cardiac cells. Drawing inspiration from cardiac muscle fiber arrangement, a three-dimensional (3D)-printed multi-layered microporous polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold is created with interlayer angles set at 45° to replicate the precise structure of native cardiac tissue. Compared with the control group and 90° PCL scaffolds, the 45° PCL scaffolds exhibited superior biocompatibility for cell culture and improved hiPSC-CM maturation in calcium handling. RNA sequencing demonstrated that the 45° PCL scaffold promotes the mature phenotype in hiPSC-CMs by upregulating ion channel genes. Using the 45° PCL scaffold, a multi-cellular EHT is successfully constructed, incorporating human cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and mesenchymal stem cells. These complex EHTs significantly enhanced hiPSC-CM engraftment in vivo, attenuated ventricular remodeling, and improved cardiac function in mouse myocardial infarction. In summary, the myocardium-specific structured EHT developed in this study represents a promising advancement in cardiovascular regenerative medicine.

Optimizing laser-induced deep etching technique for micromachining of NXT glass.

Recent advancements in display technology have led to the development and diversification of complex glass materials. Among them, Corning's Lotus NXT glass offers excellent optical properties, high thermal stability, and dimensional accuracy, which are crucial for display applications. However, these characteristics make it difficult to apply pre-existing machining techniques developed for conventional glass materials directly to NXT glass. In this study, we used the laser-induced deep etching (LIDE) technique to fabricate micro holes in NXT glass. Various laser, chemical, and mechanical parameters were subjected to experimental analysis and optimization to achieve higher etching speed and aspect ratio. In this study, successful etching of Corning's Lotus NXT glass was achieved by optimizing laser parameters, including a wavelength of 1030 nm, a pulse energy of 45 µJ, a pulse count of 2 × 104, and a repetition rate of 40 kHz, combined with a chemical composition consisting of a 1:5 molar ratio of HF to HCl. This resulted in a high aspect ratio of ∼23:1 and an impressive etching speed of 1200 µm/h.

Impact of disintegrants on rheological properties and printability in SSE 3D printing of immediate-release formulations.

This study investigates the effects of disintegrants sodium starch glycolate (SSG) and crospovidone (CP) on the printability, rheological properties, and disintegration time of agar and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)-based formulations designed for semi-solid extrusion. Printability was assessed by measuring the dimensional accuracy of manually extruded filaments. Rheological analysis was performed using oscillatory measurements. Principal component analysis (PCA) and Spearman correlation analysis identified three key components (phase angle, critical strain, and elastic modulus) that explained the total variance in the rheological dataset. A 2 x 32 factorial design was employed to evaluate the impact of CP, SSG, and HPMC on these rheological parameters, as well as on printability and disintegration time. Results indicated that formulations containing HPMC and SSG generally exhibited better printability. Formulations containing CP achieved satisfactory printability only when SSG or HPMC was included. The optimal printability and rheological properties were achieved with formulations containing 5 % CP and 10 % SSG. Linear regression models correlated geometric volumes of the model and pycnometric volumes of printed objects, with validation showing that predicted masses were within a 95 % confidence interval of measured values for various shapes. All formulations demonstrated immediate-release properties, confirming the successful fabrication of personalised immediate-release dosage forms using semi-solid extrusion technology.

Bayesian optimization with Gaussian-process-based active machine learning for improvement of geometric accuracy in projection multi-photon 3D printing

Multi-photon polymerization is a well-established, yet actively developing, additive manufacturing technique for 3D printing on the micro/nanoscale. Like all additive manufacturing techniques, determining the process parameters necessary to achieve dimensional accuracy for a structure 3D printed using this method is not always straightforward and can require time-consuming experimentation. In this work, an active machine learning based framework is presented for determining optimal process parameters for the recently developed, high-speed, layer-by-layer continuous projection 3D printing process. The proposed active learning framework uses Bayesian optimization to inform optimal experimentation in order to adaptively collect the most informative data for effective training of a Gaussian-process-regression-based machine learning model. This model then serves as a surrogate for the manufacturing process: predicting optimal process parameters for achieving a target geometry, e.g., the 2D geometry of each printed layer. Three representative 2D shapes at three different scales are used as test cases. In each case, the active learning framework improves the geometric accuracy, with drastic reductions of the errors to within the measurement accuracy in just four iterations of the Bayesian optimization using only a few hundred of total training data. The case studies indicate that the active learning framework developed in this work can be broadly applied to other additive manufacturing processes to increase accuracy with significantly reduced experimental data collection effort for optimization.

Effect of Fused Filament Fabrication Parameters on Selected Indicators for Assessing Technological Quality of Shaped Models

Despite many studies, implementation of the additive manufacturing process in industrial and research practice is limited due to the numerous distortions affecting the obtained dependencies to a degree that is difficult to predict. No uniform methodology has been developed for the study of the impact of changes in the FFF parameters on the technological quality indicators. This paper presents a description of the original procedure for assessing technological quality using a reference component. The aim of the research was to analyze the impact of changes in the FFF additive manufacturing parameters on selected indicators of technological quality assessment of products. To compare the technological quality of the various models produced, measurements of surface roughness as well as dimensional and shape accuracy were carried out using stylus profilometry and coordinate measurement. The conducted tests showed that samples with a layer height of 0.12 mm have the most advantageous surface roughness parameters compared to the other layer heights of 0.16 mm and 0.20 mm tested. All the samples obtained were characterized by smaller dimensions than nominal, indicating the material shrinkage occurring during the FFF process. The study showed a negligible effect of material fill rate on surface roughness parameters as well as on the dimensions and shape accuracy. The obtained measurement results allow determining the most advantageous parameters of the FFF process depending on the adopted quality requirements.

Silicone Rheological Properties for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing

ABSTRACTAdditive manufacturing (AM), known as three‐dimensional (3D) printing, uses computer‐controlled materials deposition to fabricate 3D objects by selectively depositing materials, usually in a layer‐wised fashion, to build a 3D object using free‐form fabrication. Integrating silicone elastomers with AM deposition strategies has been of interest due to the important application characteristics of silicones such as excellent mechanical properties, thermal resistance, and chemical inertness. This work presents a study on the shear‐thinning properties of thermally‐curable liquid silicone feedstocks to describe ideal flow and shape‐retention properties for direct ink writing of liquid silicone rubbers. To complement the direct ink writing process developed in this work for silicone AM, flow properties of various silicone feedstocks were identified through measurement of rheological properties using the AM fluid dispenser under various pressures, supported by parallel plate oscillatory shear rheology. A systematic process for evaluating and investigating the AM performance of seven different grades of silicones is introduced. The shape retention, overhang, and dimensional accuracy of these silicones in 3D printing process have been compared and summarized. This systematic evaluation methodology can be applied for silicone material selection and printing of silicone parts with complicated architectures.

Comparative Evaluation of the Dimensional Accuracy of Silicone-Based Putty Reline Impressions with Different Spacer Acquisition Techniques in Fixed Partial Dentures.

BACKGROUND A tooth preparation's clinical requirements and geometric configurations should take precedence over material characteristics when advocating for putty reline impression techniques for permanent restorations, since they require a technically sensitive spacer for light body elastomer. We evaluated the linear dimensional accuracy of vinyl polysiloxane-based putty reline impressions with different spacer acquisition techniques in short-span and long-span fixed partial dentures (FPD). MATERIAL AND METHODS A typodont tooth set simulated a 3-unit (short-span) and a 5-unit (long-span) FPD. Between respective prepared abutments, 31 coordinates were identified and measured based on angles (line/point) and surfaces (curved/flat). Sixty impressions (dual stage 2-step putty reline technique) were divided into 5 groups (n=12/group): group PP (pre-preparation putty), group GP (gouging putty), group PS (polythene spacer), group CT (conventional temporary), and group MT (modified temporary), depending on spacer acquisition method. Coordinates measurements were conducted using a measuring microscope. Descriptive and inferential statistical tests (ANOVA, post hoc Tukey) determined between-group and within-group differences, at P≤0.05 significance level. RESULTS In short-span FPD, compared with control, the number of significantly different coordinates group-wise were GP (4 coordinates), PP (2 coordinates), and PS, CT, and MT (1 each). In long-span FPD, compared with control, the number of significantly different coordinates group-wise were group GP (12 coordinates), group PP (10 coordinates), group PS (5 coordinates), and group CT and group MT (4 each). CONCLUSIONS Different spacer acquisition methods produce varied thickness of spacers for relining of putty. CT and MT, when used as spacers, provided maximum accurate coordinates for angles (line/point) and surfaces (curved/flat).

Experimental study of parameters in micro-photochemical machining using maskless digital projection on flat surfaces of 100Cr6 steel

Photochemical machining (PCM) is a chemical etching process, in which a photoresist agent is used to cover parts of the workpiece that need to be protected from etching. In this study, the main goal is to create a groove on the flat surface of a workpiece made of 100Cr6 steel using the PCM process and to investigate different variables on the dimensional and geometrical accuracy of the groove. The experiments were designed using the response surface method with a central composite methodology, involving 20 experiments and three repetitions. In this study, the effects of different variables such as time of etching, the concentration of ferric chloride (FeCl3) in the etchant solution, and the weight ratio of hydrochloric acid (HCl) to FeCl3 in the etchant solution were investigated on dimensional accuracy such as length and width error and also geometrical accuracy such as out of parallelism, out of squareness, and out of straightness. Results indicate that as the etching duration increases, the length, width, out of straightness, out of parallelism, and out of squareness also increase. This error becomes substantial with longer durations. Also, with an increase in FeCl3 concentration in etchant solution, errors in length and width, out of straightness, out of parallelism, and out of squareness reduce. The optimal variables resulting in the least possible errors were an etching duration of 10.72 minutes (10 minutes and 43 seconds), FeCl3 solution concentration of 599.64 g/L, and a weight ratio of HCl to FeCl3 in the etchant solution of 0.1. The following results on the flat surface were obtained: groove length: 3,056 µm, groove width: 625 µm, groove depth: 48 µm, and surface roughness (Ra): 1.285 µm.

Linear Dimensional Accuracy in Maxillomandibular Records: A Comparative Study of Scannable and Transparent Materials

Linear Dimensional Accuracy in Maxillomandibular Records: A Comparative Study of Scannable and Transparent Materials

Design and Realization of a Cutting Force Measuring System to Analyze the Chip Removal Process in Rotational Turning

This study focuses on a detailed analysis of the cutting forces in rotational turning, a novel machining process designed to achieve high surface quality and productivity. Unlike traditional longitudinal turning, rotational turning employs a helical cutting-edged tool that performs a circular feeding movement, introducing complex kinematics that complicates the accurate measurement of the cutting forces. To address this, the theoretical background was described for modeling the cutting force removal. The process was experimentally simulated on a CNC milling machine using a custom-designed measurement system. The major cutting force, passive force, and feed force were successfully measured and analyzed under varying feed conditions for both rotational and longitudinal turning. The results demonstrate a significant reduction in the passive force during rotational turning compared to longitudinal turning, which directly contributes to lower elastic deformation in the radial direction of the workpiece. This reduction improves the dimensional accuracy and stability during machining. Additionally, the feed force was observed to be slightly higher in rotational turning, reflecting the influence of the rotational movement of the tool. These findings highlight the advantages of rotational turning for applications requiring precision and surface quality, particularly where radial deformation is a critical concern. This study establishes a reliable methodology for force measurement in rotational turning and provides valuable comparative insights into its performance relative to conventional turning processes.

Influence of heat-assisted vat photopolymerization on the physical and mechanical characteristics of dental 3D printing resins

The effects of heat-assisted vat photopolymerization (HVPP) on the physical and mechanical properties of 3D-printed dental resins, including the morphometric stability of 3D-printed crowns, were investigated. A resin tank was designed to maintain the resin at 30, 40, and 50 ℃ during the 3D printing process. Test specimens were fabricated using a commercial dental resin, with untreated resin serving as the control group. Key properties such as viscosity, curing kinetics, surface microhardness, flexural properties, and dimensional accuracy were evaluated. The viscosity of the resin decreased significantly (P < 0.05) with increasing temperature, thereby enhancing its flow properties. Photo-DSC analysis revealed a 17.58% increase in peak heat flow at 50 ℃, indicating accelerated polymerization. Surface microhardness improved significantly (P < 0.05) with HVPP, though a slight reduction was observed at 50 ℃ compared to that at 30 and 40 ℃. The flexural strength, modulus, and resilience were significantly enhanced (P < 0.05) at higher temperatures, with 50 ℃ yielding the best mechanical properties. However, 3D morphometric analysis showed increased root mean square deviation from the CAD design at elevated temperatures. Our results suggest that HVPP enhances the durability of dental prostheses, although careful optimization of the printing temperature is essential to balance their strength and accuracy.

Dimensional Accuracy of Polyether Elastomeric Impression Materials After Using Chitosan as a Disinfectant: A Sustainable Approach to Dental Infection Control

Dimensional Accuracy of Polyether Elastomeric Impression Materials After Using Chitosan as a Disinfectant: A Sustainable Approach to Dental Infection Control

Experimental investigation of CF8 stainless steel impeller quality using PLA-based fused deposition modeling-assisted investment casting

Abstract The conventional Investment Casting (IC) process is extensively used for manufacturing parts with intricate shapes and complex geometries. However, its drawbacks include long cycle times and costly tooling, making it ideal for mass production but inefficient for frequent design changes, small batch production, or customized products. To address these challenges, a novel hybrid method known as Fused Deposition Modeling Assisted Investment Casting (FDMAIC) has been developed. In FDMAIC, the wax pattern is replaced by an FDM-printed pattern, while all other steps follow the conventional IC process. In this study, a semi-open impeller for a centrifugal pump was produced using FDMAIC, with Polylactic Acid (PLA) as the pattern material and CF8 for casting. Dimensional accuracy and surface roughness, key indicators of quality, were evaluated at both the printing and casting stages. Critical dimensions such as outer and inner diameters, shroud and blade thicknesses, and total height were measured, along with surface roughness at the shroud and blade surfaces. In the final cast, maximum dimensional deviation was observed in Outer diameter(−2.408 mm), and minimum dimensional deviation was observed in total height(−0.169 mm). The surface roughness values obtained at the shroud and blade surface of the final cast were 4.64 μm 6.67 μm, respectively. Microstructure and hardness testing were also performed on the FDMAIC impeller to validate the process. The results provide detailed insights into the feasibility of FDMAIC and suggest areas for further improvement.