Accumulation Of Total Anthocyanins Research Articles

Effect of Elicitor Treatments on Quality Attributes in Blueberry: Implications of Cultivar and Environmental Conditions.

Elicitors of plant defence responses can trigger defence mechanisms that are able to protect plant tissues from biotic or abiotic stresses. Since one defence response involves the activation of secondary metabolites' biosynthesis, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of chitosan and melatonin pre-harvest treatments on the quality and the nutritional parameters of the fruits of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.). Across the two years of experiment, three different cultivars (cv.s. 'Cosmopolitan', 'Hortblue Poppins' and 'Legacy') were treated with 1% chitosan or 100 µM melatonin every two weeks during the ripening season and ripe fruits were progressively harvested and analysed. The treatment with both elicitors had only slight effects on dry matter, soluble solids content, titratable acidity and pH, with a cultivar-dependent response. On the other hand, elicitors significantly affected the levels of phenylpropanoid and antioxidant compounds in all cvs. in both years, with a higher accumulation of total anthocyanins and phenolics and the enhancement of the antioxidant capacity, with positive effects on the nutraceutical quality of fruits. The anthocyanin profile in terms of both absolute concentrations and the relative proportion of single anthocyanins was affected by both harvest year and cv., highlighting the role of the genetic background in the plant response to environmental conditions (with particular reference to summer heat stress) and to elicitor treatments.

Effects of environmental factors on anthocyanin accumulation in the fruits of Lycium ruthenicum Murray across different desert grasslands

Anthocyanins can help plants adapt and resist adverse environments and have important nutritional and medicinal effects on human beings. However, how environmental factors affect the anthocyanins accumulation of plants and how to improve the anthocyanins content of plants in different soils needs further exploration. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the effects of environmental factors on the accumulation of cyanidin, petunidin, malvidin, and delphinidin in the fruits of Lycium ruthenicum in sandy desert grassland (SS), gravel desert grassland (GD), and saline-alkali desert grassland (SD) in the lower reaches of the Shiyang River Basin. The variable importance screened the key environmental factors affecting anthocyanin accumulation in projection (VIP) and multiple stepwise regressions. The structural equation model (SEM) was established to understand how the climate and soil factors affect the total anthocyanin accumulation. For establishing soil nutrient optimization schemes by partial least squares regression (PLS) and the simplex algorithm used to improve the anthocyanin content in different types of desert grassland. In SS, electrical conductivity (EC) and microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) showed highly significant and positive effects on the content of total anthocyanin, cyanidin, and petunidin. In GD, soil moisture and microbial biomass nitrogen (SNBN) significantly negatively affected total anthocyanin content. In SD, catalase (CAT), phosphatase (PHO), and total potassium (TK) had the greatest impact on total anthocyanin content. It is indicated that the targeted improvement measures are necessary to increase anthocyanin content in the fruit of Lycium ruthenicum.

Application of abscisic acid (S-ABA) at different stages of ripening on color development of ‘Rubi’ table grape

The color of the berries is an important aspect of the quality of table grapes and crucial for marketing. The ‘Rubi’ table grapes grown in the subtropical climate generally lack color intensity due to the inhibition of anthocyanins by high temperatures during ripening. The exogenous application of abscisic acid (S-ABA) can be used to overcome this problem as the accumulation of anthocyanins in the berry skin is regulated by this plant growth regulator. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of the exogenous application of S-ABA at different stages of ripening on color development in ‘Rubi’ table grapes using the soluble solids (SS) content as a marker of ripening. The study was conducted during two seasons in commercial vineyards. The first trial was conducted in Marialva, Parana, Brazil, during the 2019 summer season crop (harvest in December). S-ABA (400 mg L-1) was exogenously applied at different stages of ripening of ‘Rubi’ table grapes (determined by the SS content of the berries): control (without application); SS = 8-9 ºBrix; SS = 10-11 ºBrix; SS = 8-9 ºBrix (two applications; the second one applied 10 days after the first); and SS = 10-11 ºBrix (two applications; the second one applied 10 days after the first). The second trial was conducted in Cambira, Parana, Brazil, during the 2020 off-season crop (harvest in May). S-ABA (400 mg L-1) was exogenously applied at different stages of ripening of ‘Rubi’ grapes: control (without application); SS = 6-7 ºBrix; SS = 7-8 ºBrix; SS = 9-10 ºBrix; SS = 6-7 ºBrix (two applications; the second one applied 14 days after the first); SS = 7-8 ºBrix (two applications; the second one applied 14 days after the first); and SS = 9-10 ºBrix (two applications; the second one applied 14 days after the first). A randomized block design was used as the statistical model with four replications, and each plot consisted of one vine. The variables analyzed were total anthocyanin contents, color index (CIRG), and color attributes (L*, C*, h°, and ΔE) of berry skin. The total anthocyanin accumulation and color attributes of the berries were evaluated every 10 and 7 days after the first application of S-ABA until harvest in the first and second trials, respectively, and the other variables were evaluated at harvest. In the summer-season crop, when the SS content was 8-11 ºBrix, the application of S-ABA increased the concentration of the total anthocyanins 4 times compared to that in the control, improving berry color development. Furthermore, in the off-season crop, when the SS content was 6-10 ºBrix, the application of S-ABA increased the concentration of total anthocyanins 2-3 times compared to that in the control, improving the color attributes of berries. In both crops, a single application of the plant growth regulator was sufficient to intensify the color of the berries.

Effect of jasmonic acid elicitation period on enhancement of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity in callus cultures of Hibicus sabdariffa Linn

This study investigated jasmonic acid (JA) elicitation of the callus of two roselle accessions: HS003 (orange-red calyx) and HS005 (dark-red calyx). The goal was to identify the optimal exposure period for production of total anthocyanin, phenolics, and flavonoids and for enhancing DPPH radical scavenging. Dark-red callus was cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 4.52 µM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 4.44 µM 6-benzyladenine, combined with 0 and 50 µM JA for treatment of HS003, and with 0 and 100 µM JA for treatment of HS005. Elicitation periods of 7, 14, 21, and 28 days were compared. Significant increases in both accumulation of bioactive compounds and enhancement of antioxidant activity were observed. In the case of HS003, the optimal exposure periods were 21 days for enhancement of total anthocyanin accumulation (1.48 ± 0.07 mg cyd-3-glu L−1, or 3.70 times that of the control) and 14 days for enhancement of total phenolic and flavonoid contents (114.72 ± 6.63 mg GAE g−1 dry extract and 106.15 ± 9.06 mg CE g−1 dry extract, or 6.89 and 18.59 times that of the control). In the case of HS005, elicitation with 100 µM JA for 28 days yielded the greatest increase in total anthocyanin (0.86 ± 0.06 mg cyd-3-glu L−1, or 6.61 times that of the control), phenolics (48.01 ± 2.47 mg GAE g−1 dry extract, or 3.37 times that of the control), and flavonoids (21.41 ± 1.89 mg CE g−1 dry extract, or 3.30 times that of the control). At all periods, and for both accessions, JA elicitation increased DPPH radical scavenging, compared with the control. Our results demonstrated that the dark-red callus of roselle accumulated greater amounts of bioactive compounds and exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity, following elicitation with JA for 14–21 days in the case of HS003 and 28 days in the case of HS005.

Temperature and Maturity Stages Affect Anthocyanin Development and Phenolic and Sugar Content of Purple-Pericarp Supersweet Sweetcorn during Storage.

Purple-pericarp sweetcorn (PPS) is a novel product, requiring both purple pigment development and maintenance of sweetness. Storage period and temperature had a profound impact on total anthocyanin accumulation (TAC) and sugar content. While TAC remained relatively unchanged during 14-day storage at 4 °C, the first recorded observation of continuing accumulation of anthocyanin and phenolic compounds was concurrent with an increase in purple pigment coverage across the surface of the kernel at 23 °C. TAC in PPS significantly increased, doubling after 14 days at 23 °C. Anthocyanin concentration and kernel coverage were also affected by harvest maturity. The results indicated that biosynthesis of anthocyanins is still occurring during postharvest storage of PPS. A significant decline in sugar concentration was also observed during storage with a greater decline at 23 °C. As anthocyanin accumulation and maintaining sweetness are important factors for sweetcorn, identifying storage temperatures that optimize both quality criteria are required.

Diverse biological effects of glycosyltransferase genes from Tartary buckwheat

BackgroundTartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum) is an edible cereal crop whose sprouts have been marketed and commercialized for their higher levels of anti-oxidants, including rutin and anthocyanin. UDP-glucose flavonoid glycosyltransferases (UFGTs) play an important role in the biosynthesis of flavonoids in plants. So far, few studies are available on UFGT genes that may play a role in tartary buckwheat flavonoids biosynthesis. Here, we report on the identification and functional characterization of seven UFGTs from tartary buckwheat that are potentially involved in flavonoid biosynthesis (and have varying effects on plant growth and development when overexpressed in Arabidopsis thaliana.)ResultsPhylogenetic analysis indicated that the potential function of the seven FtUFGT proteins, FtUFGT6, FtUFGT7, FtUFGT8, FtUFGT9, FtUFGT15, FtUFGT40, and FtUFGT41, could be divided into three Arabidopsis thaliana functional subgroups that are involved in flavonoid biosynthesis of and anthocyanin accumulation. A significant positive correlation between FtUFGT8 and FtUFGT15 expression and anthocyanin accumulation capacity was observed in the tartary buckwheat seedlings after cold stress. Overexpression in Arabidopsis thaliana showed that FtUFGT8, FtUFGT15, and FtUFGT41 significantly increased the anthocyanin content in transgenic plants. Unexpectedly, overexpression of FtUFGT6, while not leading to enhanced anthocyanin accumulation, significantly enhanced the growth yield of transgenic plants. When wild-type plants have only cotyledons, most of the transgenic plants of FtUFGT6 had grown true leaves. Moreover, the growth speed of the oxFtUFGT6 transgenic plant root was also significantly faster than that of the wild type. At later growth, FtUFGT6 transgenic plants showed larger leaves, earlier twitching times and more tillers than wild type, whereas FtUFGT15 showed opposite results.ConclusionsSeven FtUFGTs were isolated from tartary buckwheat. FtUFGT8, FtUFGT15, and FtUFGT41 can significantly increase the accumulation of total anthocyanins in transgenic plants. Furthermore, overexpression of FtUFGT6 increased the overall yield of Arabidopsis transgenic plants at all growth stages. However, FtUFGT15 shows the opposite trend at later growth stage and delays the growth speed of plants. These results suggested that the biological function of FtUFGT genes in tartary buckwheat is diverse.

Exogenous Abscisic Acid Promotes Anthocyanin Biosynthesis and Increased Expression of Flavonoid Synthesis Genes in Vitis vinifera × Vitis labrusca Table Grapes in a Subtropical Region.

Hybrid (Vitis vinifera ×Vitis labrusca) table grape cultivars grown in the subtropics often fail to accumulate sufficient anthocyanins to achieve good uniform berry color. Growers of V. vinifera table grapes in temperate regions generally use ethephon and, more recently, (S)-cis-abscisic acid (S-ABA) to overcome this problem. The objective of this study was to determine if S-ABA applications at different timings and concentrations have an effect on anthocyanin regulatory and biosynthetic genes, pigment accumulation, and berry color of the Selection 21 cultivar, a new V. vinifera ×V. labrusca hybrid seedless grape that presents lack of red color when grown in subtropical areas. Applications of S-ABA 400 mg/L resulted in a higher accumulation of total anthocyanins and of the individual anthocyaninsanthocyanins: delphinidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, and malvidin-3-glucoside in the berry skin and improved the color attributes of the berries. Treatment with two applications at 7 days after véraison (DAV) and 21 DAV of S-ABA 400 mg/L resulted in a higher accumulation of total anthocyanins in the skin of berries and increased the gene expression of CHI, F3H, DFR, and UFGT and of the VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 transcription factors in the seedless grape cultivar.

Comparative transcriptomic analysis of white and red Chinese bayberry ( Myrica rubra ) fruits reveals flavonoid biosynthesis regulation

Abstract To fully elucidate molecular mechanisms of flavonoid biosynthesis in Chinese bayberry, transcriptomes of two genotypes with different colours, white cultivar (Shuijing, SJ) and red cultivar (Biqi, BQ), were compared. During fruit development, ‘BQ’ exhibited substantial increase of total anthocyanins content together with dramatic decrease of total soluble proanthocyanidins (PAs) content, while ‘SJ’ displayed decrease of total soluble PAs levels but failed to accumulate anthocyanin. Based on the sequencing results, 124,265 unigenes were generated with an average length of 708 bp. All genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis and glycosylation were identified and their expression patterns were in accordance with total anthocyanin accumulation in developing fruits of ‘BQ’ and ‘SJ’. Expression levels of leucoanthocyanidin reductase (LAR) and anthocyanidin reductase (ANR) were down-regulated in ‘SJ’ in agreement with the decrease in PAs, while an opposite trend was observed in ‘BQ’. The higher expression levels of LAR and ANR in ‘BQ’ may be an important reason for the higher levels of total soluble PAs as compared to ‘SJ’. Phylogenetic analysis showed that seven MYBs could be identified as putative homologues of PA-specific regulator and exhibited considerable genotypic and temporal specificity of expression. In addition, three WD40 genes in Chinese bayberry clustered with the WD40s related to flavonoid biosynthesis in other species. Finally, RNA-Seq data was validated by using qRT-PCR analysis with a high correlation, suggesting that the RNA-Seq data here are credible. These results provide new insights into the regulation of the complex branching pathway leading to various flavonoid compounds biosynthesis in bayberries.

Accumulation of anthocyanin in callus cultures of red-pod okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Hongjiao] in response to light and nitrogen levels

Nitrogen and light are critical determinants of biomass accumulation and secondary metabolite production under in vitro culture conditions. In this study, we analyzed the effects of varied concentrations of total nitrogen in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium and light intensity on the production of biomass, anthocyanin pigments, and bioactive antioxidants in callus cultures of Abelmoschus esculentus cv. ‘Hongjiao’. Maximum callus biomass accumulation (3 g FW) was achieved when calluses were cultured on MS medium containing 60 mM nitrogen under 40 μmol m− 2 s− 1 light intensity. In contrast, maximum values of total anthocyanin accumulation (TA; 7.3 CV/g FW), total phenolic content (TP; 12.07 mg/100 g FW), total flavonoid content (TF; 2.47 ± 0.15 mg/100 g FW), and total antioxidant activity (TAA; 56.10 μmol Trolox/g FW) were observed when calluses were cultured on MS medium containing 40 mM total nitrogen under 80 μmol m− 2 s− 1 light intensity. In addition, callus grown under same culture condition exhibited high flavonoid content along with increased phenolic content and antioxidant activity. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was performed for qualitative and quantity analysis of callus cultures. Most of the pigments from the callus extracts were identical with pod anthocyanins, and appeared on the ODS-column HPLC with lower concentration than the main pigments of the pod tissues. These findings indicate that callus cultures of red-pod okra represent a potential source of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties for industrial applications.

Pre-harvest spray application of phenylpropanoids influences accumulation of anthocyanin and flavonoids in ‘Cripps Pink’ apple skin

Abstract Poor colour development on ‘Cripps Pink’ apple fruit causes serious economic losses to the growers in the warmer regions of the world. Effects of pre-harvest spray application of different concentrations (0, 50, 100, or 200 mg L−1) of cinnamic acid, p-coumaric acid, d -phenylalanine, l -phenylalanine, and naringenin, on red blush development on the fruit surface and accumulation of anthocyanins, dihydrochalcones, hydroxycinnamic acid, flavanols, and flavonols, in the skin of ‘Cripps Pink’ apple at commercial fruit maturity were investigated. Skin of apple fruit harvested from the trees sprayed with l -phenylalanine or cinnamic acid contained significantly higher concentrations of total anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-galactoside, and flavonols, compared to control and to those treated with other phenylpropanoids, in a dose- independent pattern. Based on tristimulus system of colour perception {i.e. chromaticity values such as L*, a*, b*, chroma (C*), and hue angle (h°)}, a similar trend of red blush development was observed on fruit’s exterior at commercial maturity, in response to pre-harvest spray application of phenylpropanoids. The apple fruit harvested from the trees sprayed with l -phenylalanine or cinnamic acid had the highest values of a* and the lowest values of h° for colour perception on the exposed side of apple fruit, irrespective of their doses applied, indicating a substantial trend of red blush intensification on the fruit surface. In conclusion, a single pre-harvest spray application of l -phenylalanine (100 mg L−1), applied 3–4 weeks prior to the anticipated commercial fruit maturity was most effective in improving red blush development, increased production of export-grade fruit, accumulation of total anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-galactoside, flavanols, chlorogenic acid and flavonols in the fruit skin, without adversely affecting the fruit quality.

Vanillylacetone up-regulates anthocyanin accumulation and expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic genes by inducing endogenous abscisic acid in grapevine tissues

We investigated the effect of vanillylacetone (VA) on anthocyanin accumulation with aim of improving grape berry coloration. Spraying Vitis vinifera cv. Muscat Bailey A berries with VA at veraison increased sugar/acid ratio, an indicator of maturation and total anthocyanin accumulation. To elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying the effect of VA on anthocyanin accumulation, in vitro VA treatment of a grapevine cell culture was carried out. Endogenous abscisic acid (ABA) content was higher in the VA-treated cell cultures than in control at 3h after treatment. Consistent with this, the relative expression levels of anthocyanin-synthesis-related genes, including DFR, LDOX, MybA1 and UFGT, in VA-treated cell cultures were much higher than those in control, and high total anthocyanin accumulation was noted in the VA-treated cell cultures as well. These results suggest that VA up-regulates the expression of genes leading to anthocyanin accumulation by inducing endogenous ABA. In addition, VA increased total anthocyanin content in a dose-dependent manner. Although VA treatment in combination with exogenous ABA did not exhibit any synergistic effect, treatment with VA alone showed an equivalent effect to that with exogenous ABA alone on total anthocyanin accumulation. These findings point to the possibility of using VA for improving grape berry coloration.

Anthocyanin Contents Enhancement with Gamma Irradiated Mutagenesis in Blackberry (Rubus fructicosus)

Effects of radiation processing on the endogenous phytochemical production in blackberry ( Rubus fructicosus L.) were investigated through a metabolites analysis, using high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector and a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS). Four mutant cultivar lines (B, C, D, and E) were developed through the treatment of various doses of gamma irradiation (80, 60, 40, and 20 Gy) on the control blackberry cultivar (V3). These mutant cultivar lines were selected according to their different morphological variations in leaf shape and branch color. In the present study, we performed quantitative analyses of the four standard compounds in blackberry mutant cultivars: cyanidin-3- O-glucoside, cyanidin-3- O-xyloside, cyanidin-3- O-malonylglucoside, and cyanidin-3- O-dioxalylglucoside. The HPLC fingerprints displayed different profiles for six blackberry cultivar lines, demonstrating that the accumulation of total anthocyanins was affected by the gamma irradiation. The contents of cyanidin-3- O-glucoside and cyanidin-3- O-xyloside were high in the gamma-irradiated mutant cultivars of blackberries, compared to those of the control cultivar (V3) and the cross breeding cultivar ( R. fructicosus × R. parvifolius; CB). Cyanidin-3- O-malonylglucoside and cyanidin-3- O-dioxalylglucoside were also analyzed for their quantification in six cultivar lines, as metabolites contributing to the discrimination of six cultivar lines. Among gamma irradiated mutant blackberry cultivars, the highest dose level of gamma irradiation (80 Gy) resulted in the highest cyanidin-3- O-glucoside content enhancement. Therefore, these results can be useful to determine the optimized gamma irradiated value at which anthocyanins reaches an abundant level in Rubus species.

The crucial role of PpMYB10.1 in anthocyanin accumulation in peach and relationships between its allelic type and skin color phenotype.

BackgroundRed coloration of fruit skin is one of the most important traits in peach (Prunus persica), and it is mainly due to the accumulation of anthocyanins. Three MYB10 genes, PpMYB10.1, PpMYB10.2, and PpMYB10.3, have been reported as important regulators of red coloration and anthocyanin biosynthesis in peach fruit. In this study, contribution of PpMYB10.1/2/3 to anthocyanin accumulation in the fruit skin was investigated in the Japanese peach cultivars, white-skinned ‘Mochizuki’ and red-skinned ‘Akatsuki’. We then investigated the relationships between allelic type of PpMYB10.1 and skin color phenotype in 23 Japanese peach cultivars for future establishment of DNA-marker.ResultsDuring the fruit development of ‘Mochizuki’ and ‘Akatsuki’, anthocyanin accumulation was observed only in the skin of red ‘Akatsuki’ fruit in the late ripening stages concomitant with high mRNA levels of the last step gene leading to anthocyanin accumulation, UDP-glucose:flavonoid-3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT). This was also correlated with the expression level of PpMYB10.1. Unlike PpMYB10.1, expression levels of PpMYB10.2/3 were low in the skin of both ‘Mochizuki’ and ‘Akatsuki’ throughout fruit development. Moreover, only PpMYB10.1 revealed expression levels associated with total anthocyanin accumulation in the leaves and flowers of ‘Mochizuki’ and ‘Akatsuki’. Introduction of PpMYB10.1 into tobacco increased the expression of tobacco UFGT, resulting in higher anthocyanin accumulation and deeper red transgenic tobacco flowers; however, overexpression of PpMYB10.2/3 did not alter anthocyanin content and color of transgenic tobacco flowers when compared with wild-type flowers. Dual-luciferase assay showed that the co-infiltration of PpMYB10.1 with PpbHLH3 significantly increased the activity of PpUFGT promoter. We also found close relationships of two PpMYB10.1 allelic types, MYB10.1-1/MYB10.1-2, with the intensity of red skin coloration.ConclusionWe showed that PpMYB10.1 is a major regulator of anthocyanin accumulation in red-skinned peach and that it activates PpUFGT transcription. PpMYB10.2/3 may be involved in functions other than anthocyanin accumulation in peach. The peach cultivars having two MYB10.1-2 types resulted in the white skin color. By contrast, those with two MYB10.1-1 or MYB10.1-1/MYB10.1-2 types showed respective red or pale red skin color. These findings contribute to clarifying the molecular mechanisms of anthocyanin accumulation and generating gene-based markers linked to skin color phenotypes.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12870-015-0664-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Anthocyanin, Carotenoid, Tocopherol, and Ellagitannin Content of Red Raspberry Cultivars Grown under Field or High Tunnel Cultivation in the Southeastern United States

High tunnels have been widely adopted for red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) production in the United States to extend the harvest season and increase yields. In this study, effects of high tunnel production on contents of plant secondary metabolites (anthocyanins, carotenoids, tocopherols, and ellagitannins) in red raspberry fruit were determined for three fall-fruiting cultivars (Autumn Britten, Caroline, and Nantahala) grown at three locations in North Carolina under field and high tunnel cultivation systems. Cultivar was the primary contributing factor to variation in phytochemicals, with minor effects of location and production system. The anthocyanin cyanidin-3-glucoside and the carotenoids α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin were higher in fruit produced in field compared with tunnel cultivation (P < 0.01). Accumulation of total anthocyanins and tocopherols in fruit were unaffected by high tunnel cultivation in comparison with traditional field cultivation. Carotenoid content varied by genotype and production system. ‘Autumn Britten’ and ‘Caroline’ showed no difference, but were higher than ‘Nantahala’ for α-carotene, β-carotene, 9-cis-β-carotene, and lutein + zeaxanthin (P < 0.0001). Phytochemical differences among field and tunnel produced fruit have important implications for breeding with increased nutritional value in mind, and also the understanding of the relationships of plant pigments to light and temperature.

Monochromatic light increases anthocyanin content during fruit development in bilberry.

BackgroundLight is one of the most significant environmental factors affecting to the accumulation of flavonoids in fruits. The composition of the light spectrum has been shown to affect the production of phenolic compounds during fruit ripening. However, specific information on the biosynthesis of flavonoids in fruits in response to different wavelengths of light is still scarce. In the present study bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) fruits, which are known to be rich with anthocyanin compounds, were illuminated with blue, red, far-red or white light during the berry ripening process. Following the illumination, the composition of anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds was analysed at the mature ripening stage of fruits.ResultsAll the three monochromatic light treatments had significant positive effect on the accumulation of total anthocyanins in ripe fruits compared to treatment with white light or plants kept in darkness. The elevated levels of anthocyanins were mainly due to a significant increase in the accumulation of delphinidin glycosides. A total of 33 anthocyanin compounds were detected in ripe bilberry fruits, of which six are novel in bilberry (cyanidin acetyl-3-O-galactose, malvidin acetyl-3-O-galactose, malvidin coumaroyl-3-O-galactose, malvidin coumaroyl-3-O-glucose, delphinidin coumaroyl-3-O-galactose, delphinidin coumaroyl-3-O-glucose).ConclusionsOur results indicate that the spectral composition of light during berry development has significant effect on the flavonoid composition of ripe bilberry fruits.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12870-014-0377-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Accumulation of Total Anthocyanins in Wheat Grain

Accumulation of Total Anthocyanins in Wheat GrainIn the recent years, for specific goals of utilization, winter wheat breeding has been aimed on increasing total anthocyanins concentration in winter wheat grains considering their high antioxidant activity. The aim of research was to evaluate grain colour development in four wheat genotypes (ANK 28A and 62/0 purple pericarp, UC 66049 blue aleurone and Ilona red pericarp) during grain filling period. Grain samples from two replications of field experiment, established in the vegetation 2010/11, were taken in five to six sampling times. Total anthocyanins concentration was determined by spectrophotometer. The genotypes responded differently to the dynamics of total anthocyanins accumulation during grain filling. The process was described by linear and also by polynomial regression on the number of days post anthesis. Genotypes with purple pericarp reached the highest total anthocyanins concentration on the 22ndday post anthesis with increasing and decreasing before and after this sampling time, respectively. At maturity the highest total anthocyanins had UC 66049 (193.38 mg/kg). Newly bred genotype 62/0 had similar concentration (34.50 mg/kg) as its parent ANK 28A (37.80 mg/kg). At maturity, registered cultivar Ilona was about 93.7% lower in total anthocyanins concentration compared to ANK 28A. Significant variability in total anthocyanins concentration indicated that breeding for their increasing is possible.

Induction of anthocyanin pigment in callus cultures of Solanum melongena L. in response to plant growth regulators and light

Anthocyanins are natural pigments which have various health benefits and are potential candidate for use in the pharmaceutical industries. The fruits and vegetables containing anthocyanins have proved to be beneficial for humans due to their antioxidant activity. For the present study purple brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is selected as the anthocyanin source. The type of anthocyanins in the peels of this vegetable has been determined as nasunin which is identified as delphinidin-3(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside. The present study attempts to produce pigmented callus from in vitro grown seedlings of purple brinjal as explants. Various combinations of phytohormones were added to the culture media and the induction of pigmented callus was studied. The effect of light intensity was also considered. The best results were recorded when Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) at 1 mg L -1 was used with Kinetin at 0.25 and 0.1 mg L -1 , at a light intensity of 4000 lux. The total anthocyanin accumulation in the pigmented callus was calculated as 70 µg g -1 . This type of study in S. melongena is being reported for the first time to the best of our knowledge.

Effects of Salinity Stress on Carotenoids, Anthocyanins, and Color of Diverse Tomato Genotypes

One nonanthocyanin-accumulating (Ailsa Craig) and three anthocyanin-accumulating tomato genotypes (Anthocyanin fruit type, Atroviolaceum, and Sun Black) were analyzed to assess differences in their carotenoid and anthocyanin levels and color and to evaluate the effects of nutrient solutions with different salt concentrations on these parameters. The carotenoid content of control Atroviolaceum tomatoes was ca. 2-2.5-fold higher relative to the other two types, and the color of its puree could be visually distinguished from those of other genotypes. Salinity stress led in some cases to a 2-3-fold increase in the lycopene content. Saline treatment increased the accumulation of total anthocyanins in fruits of Sun Black (2-fold increase), while it reduced it in fruits of Anthocyanin (10-fold decrease). In general, the treatment increased the differences in color of different purees. These results indicate that salinity stress can lead to similar or higher increases in tomato carotenoids than those achieved by genetic engineering. In addition, these changes were accompanied by visually discernible color differences in tomato products. Our findings show the considerable potential of exploiting saline soils to obtain tomatoes with higher levels of secondary metabolites like carotenoids and anthocyanins.

Pre-harvest spray application of methyl jasmonate improves red blush and flavonoid content in ‘Cripps Pink’ apple

SummaryPoor and erratic red blush development in ‘Cripps Pink’ apple causes serious economic losses to growers. The effects of a single pre-harvest spray application of various methyl jasmonate (MJ) emulsions on the development of red blush and fruit quality in ‘Cripps Pink’ apple were investigated at three locations. In the first and second experiments, during 2005, apple trees were sprayed separately with 0.0, 1.0, 5.0, 10.0, or 15.0 mM MJ at Perth Hills (PH) and at Manjimup (MM). In the third and fourth experiments, during 2006, 0.0, 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, or 10.0 mM MJ was sprayed separately at PH and at Donnybrook (DB). In 2005, at PH and MM, fruit treated with 1.0 mM or 5.0 mM MJ exhibited the greatest increases in red blush, in the percentage of export-grade fruit, and in the levels of total anthocyanins, cyanidin 3-galactoside, chlorogenic acid, phloridzin, flavanols, and flavonols. In 2006, at PH, the maximum improvement in red blush, in the percentage of export-grade fruit, and in the accumulation of total anthocyanins and colour parameters (lower CIE L* and hº values, and higher a* and C* values) were achieved with a 1.25 mM MJ spray application. In contrast, at DB, the same results were achieved with 5.0 mM MJ. In both years, fruit quality (i.e., firmness, and the soluble solids concentration: titratable acidity ratio) was not significantly influenced by the application of MJ. In conclusion, a single pre-harvest application of 1.0 – 5.0 mM MJ emulsion improved the development of red blush, the accumulation of total anythocyanins, and the level of flavonoids in fruit skin, without affecting fruit quality at commercial harvest. Orchard location also had a significant influence on the efficacy of the application of MJ on the development of red blush and on the level of flavonoids in ‘Cripps Pink’ apple.

Berry Temperature and Solar Radiation Alter Acylation, Proportion, and Concentration of Anthocyanin in Merlot Grapes

Using a forced convection system, temperatures of Merlot grape clusters were monitored and controlled between veraison and harvest to produce a dynamic range of berry temperatures under field conditions in both sun-exposed and shaded fruit. Ten combinations of temperature and solar radiation exposure were used to quantify effects on phenolic profiles (anthocyanins and flavonol-glycosides) and on total concentrations of skin anthocyanin (TSA) in the fruit at commercial maturity. Exposure of berries to high temperature extremes for relatively short periods during ripening appears to alter the partitioning of anthocyanins between acylated and nonacylated forms and between dihydroxylated and trihydroxylated branches of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. Specifically, among flavonol-glycosides, quercetin 3-glucoside increased with exposure to solar radiation. Low incident solar radiation alone appeared not to compromise total anthocyanin accumulation; rather, a combination of low light and high berry temperatures decreased TSA. Regardless of exposure to solar radiation, higher berry temperatures led to a higher concentration and a higher proportion of TSA comprised by malvidin-based anthocyanins, driven primarily by increases in the acylated derivatives. Under shade alone and under high temperature extremes in sunlit and shaded fruit, acylated anthocyanins represented a larger proportion of TSA than did nonacylated anthocyanins. At berry temperatures equivalent to those of shaded fruit, exposure to solar radiation decreased the proportion of TSA comprised by acylated forms of the five base anthocyanins and increased the proportion of TSA comprised by dihydroxylated anthocyanins. Results indicate a complex combined effect of solar radiation and berry temperature on anthocyanin composition, synergistic at moderate berry temperatures and potentially antagonistic at high temperature extremes.