Accumulation In China Research Articles

Coalbed methane genesis, occurrence and accumulation in China

Coalbed methane (CBM) is an important type of unconventional gas. Commercial development of CBM in America has been very successful since the 1980s. The CBM industry in Australia and Canada has developed rapidly during the last decade. Commercial development of CBM in China started in the 1990s, and has made great progress. The geological theory of CBM in China has achieved great advancement in genesis, occurrence and accumulation. On the aspect of CBM genesis, five CBM genetic types (primary biogenic gas, secondary biogenic gas, thermal degradation gas, pyrolysis gas and mixed gas) are identified by studying the geochemical characteristics of CBM, and a tracing indicator system is established. The discovery of secondary biogenic gas in medium-high rank coal reservoirs has widened the potential of CBM resources. On the aspect of CBM occurrence, the gas adsorption regulation under combined action of temperature and pressure is revealed by conducting adsorption experiments of different coal ranks under varying temperature and pressure conditions. Besides, by applying the adsorption potential theory in CBM research, the adsorption model under combined action of temperature and pressure is established. The new model can predict CBM resources accurately, and overcome the limitation of the traditional Langmuir model which uses just a single factor to describe the adsorption characteristics of deep buried coal. On the aspect of CBM accumulation, it is proposed that there are three evolutionary stages during CBM accumulation, including gas generation and adsorption, unsaturated gas adsorption, gas desorption-diffusion and preservation. Controlled by tectonic evolution, hydrodynamics and sealing conditions, CBM tends to be regionally enriched in synclines. Advances in geological theory of CBM in China can not only improve understanding of natural gas, but also provide new ideas for further exploration of CBM.

Microbial Functional Diversity in Facilities Cultivation Soils of Nitrate Accumulation

Abstract There are increasing concerns over facilities cultivation soils of nitrate accumulation in China. Nitrate pollution in secondary salinization soil is regarded as having potential effects on soil microbial communities. Our study was conducted to evaluate effects of secondary salinization on soil microbial functional diversity with the BIOLOG method. The results showed that Average well-color development (AWCD) values declined with the rising of nitrate concentrations to some extent. The results also exhibited that the accumulation of nitrate in soil decreased the carbon sources utilization rates and the microbial species diversity indices. It indicated that nitrate has significantly negative effects on the sole-carbon-source metabolic ability of soil microbial communities. The cluster analysis intuitively demonstrated the distance and relationship between each sample: soil samples with high nitrate content were more close to each other, while soil samples with low were more similar in distances. The principal component analysis (PCA) result further validated that nitrate was inversely correlated to microbial carbon sources utilization intensity and microbial diversity. The four carbon substrates, Carbohydrates, Miscellaneous, Amino acids and Polymers, could reflect most of the information about carbon sources utilization. Microorganisms preferred these four carbon substrates were more vulnerable to nitrate. Thus, these four carbon substrates could be one of the prioritized microbe carbon sources in soil bioremediation.

Migration constraints and development: Hukou and capital accumulation in China

Rural–urban migration flows are a crucial corollary of economic development. The adverse or beneficial effects of internal migration, for sending as well as receiving areas, and the definition of optimal migration policies, have remained much discussed issues since the seminal works of Harris and Todaro (1970). This debate is especially acute in China where the “household registration system” ( hukou ) acts as a strong constraint on individual migration. This paper aims to assess the consequences of hukou through a simple model of a developing dual economy with overlapping generations. Contrary to existing studies focused on the contemporaneous allocation of economic resources, it deals with the dynamic consequences of migration flows and migration policies. It shows that, in fairly general circumstances, hukou -related migration constraints can actually hasten development, understood as the transfer of the labor force to the modern sector, driven by capital accumulation. The hukou system could thus be one of the causes of the extremely high Chinese saving rate and of the high pace of Chinese development. Insights from the model are confronted with stylized facts from the Chinese development, and theoretical results are especially consistent with the effects of the 2001 “towns and small cities” reform.

The oldest oil accumulation in China: Meso-proterozoic Xiamaling Formation bituminous sandstone reservoirs

Abstract Based on analysis on the coexistent relationship between igneous rock intrusion and bituminous sandstone of the Xiamaling Formation in northern Hebei (Qnx), the accumulation time of the Xiamaling Formation bituminous sandstone reservoir is defined by the methods of organic petrology and isotope chronology. According to field investigation, observation of thin-section and the shallow drilling show, and based on the previous results of oil seepages and bitumen spots in the Qnx base sandstone, thirty-one new oil seepages (bitumen spots), including twenty-one visible black bitumen spots, were discovered in the Qnx. The distribution of paleo-reservoirs in the Qnx bituminous sandstone was identified, and 4 paleo-reservoirs, i.e. Shuangdong paleo-reservoir in Pingquan, Longtangou paleo-reservoir in Lingyuan, Lujiazhuang paleo-reservoir and Tashan paleo-reservoir in Kuancheng, have been named. The reserves of the paleo-reservoirs are 0.7-1.0 billion tons, which are calculated by the volume method with the solid bitumen content. Organic petrology analysis shows that two kinds of solid bitumen with diferent reflectivity characteristics were developed. Class structure of natural coke is discovered in solid bitumen, which is the first direct evidence to prove that severe thermal alteration occurs in the Qnx base sandstone bitumen. The age of Qnx gabbro-diabase baddeleyite by SHRIMP U-Pb dating is 1 327 Ma±2 Ma, which indicates that the accumulation time of the Xiamaling Formation bituminous sandstone is 1 400 Ma to 1 327 Ma. So, it is the oldest oil accumulation in China.

Analysis of frailty and survival from late middle age in the Beijing Longitudinal Study of Aging

BackgroundFrailty in individuals can be operationalized as the accumulation of health deficits, for which several trends have been observed in Western countries. Less is known about deficit accumulation in China, the country with the world's largest number of older adults.MethodsThis study analyzed data from the Beijing Longitudinal Study of Aging, to evaluate the relationship between age and deficit accumulation in men and women and to evaluate the impact of frailty on mortality. Community dwelling people aged 55+ years at baseline (n = 3275) were followed every two to three years between 1992 and 2000, during which time 36% died. A Frailty Index was constructed using 35 deficits, drawn from a range of health problems, including symptoms, disabilities, disease, and psychological difficulties.ResultsMost deficits increased the eight-year risk of death and were more lethal in men than in women, although women had a higher mean level of frailty (Frailty Index = 0.11 ± 0.10 for men, 0.14 ± 0.12 for women). The Frailty Index increased exponentially with age, with a similar rate in men and women (0.038 vs. 0.039; r > 0.949, P < 0.01). A dose-response relationship was observed as frailty increased.ConclusionsA Frailty Index employed in a Chinese sample, showed properties comparable with Western data, but deficit accumulation appeared to be more lethal than in the West.

Comment: Primitive accumulation in modern China

Michael Webber has made a significant contribution by surveying the history ofprimitive accumulation in China from the early 1980s to the mid 2000s.Conceptualizing primitive accumulation as the process through which capitalistproduction emerges from pre-existing condition of work, Webber identifies threeprincipal means of primitive accumulation in China, namely: the transformation ofstate and collective enterprises into capital, the peasants’ loss of land throughvarious forms of dispossession, and the voluntary migration of peasants fromagricultural to industrial pursuits. Webber further points out that the state has beenclosely involved in the entire process, and that the Chinese primitive accumulationprocess is complex, particular and localized––a mix of dispossession for economicreasons, dispossession for other reasons, and market-led processes.I do not dispute with Webber’s empirical findings. In fact, I find the informationwell-documented and Webber’s observation on them insightful. However, althoughWebber’s paper is strong in describing the unique feature of Chinese primitiveaccumulation process, it is relatively weak in explanation in explaining howChinese primitive accumulation emerged, why it took such a unique form (that isdifferent from all the previous primitive accumulation processes in Europe and inthe South), and what the implication is of this mode of primitive accumulation forChinese development.In the following sections I will provide a somewhat different historicalinterpretation of the primitive accumulation process in China. First, I will presentthe historical context through which primitive accumulation emerged in China.Then I will show why such historical context helps us understand the uniquefeatures of Chinese primitive accumulation. After that, I will discuss two issues thatWebber fails to raise in his paper: (1) when does the primitive accumulation processcome to an end in China? It is important to raise this ending question because

Primitive accumulation in modern China

This article surveys the history of primitive accumulation in China, from the early 1980s to the mid 2000s. It observes that the principal means of primitive accumulation have been the transformation of state and collective enterprises into capital, the peasants’ loss of land through various forms of dispossession, and the voluntary migration of peasants from agricultural to industrial pursuits. These mix dispossession and market mechanisms in complex ways. They have involved the creation of markets; but more, the creation of workers and capital. While the processes that drive primitive accumulation have economic logics, they also have logics that derive from concerns over social welfare, over environmental management, and over ethnic struggles. Furthermore, the state has been closely involved in the entire process—as a regionally differentiated actor, directly involved in ownership, asset transformation and the control of migration. Primitive accumulation in China does not have one motive, does not simply reflect class interests, is not a particular case of a global capitalist project, but is complex and localised.

The Characteristics of Intra-continental Deformation and Hydrocarbon Distribution Controlled by the Himalayan Tectonic Movements in China

Based on previous studies and the latest insights from recent petroleum exploration programs, we propose that the characteristics of intra-continental deformation and its distribution, caused by the Himalayan tectonic movements, are controlled by basement framework formed by a collage of microcratons and lithotectonic terranes and dynamic factors such as the Indian/Eurasia collision and subduction of the Pacific plate. The evolution of Himalayan tectonic movements can be resolved by three principal dynamic mechanisms: (1) the uplift of Tibetan Plateau, (2) the coupling of orogenic belts and basins surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, and (3) extensional tectonics in eastern China. The tectonic framework and deformation that resulted from the Himalayan tectonic movements are mainly embodied in four tectonic domains: (1) the uplifted regions of the Tibetan Plateau, (2) the basin-and-range coupling of peripheral Tibetan Plateau, (3) stable regions, and (4) regions of active rifting along the western circum-Pacific margin. Sedimentary basins formed during the Himalayan tectonic movements, can be assorted into three categories: (1) rift basins due to extensional tectonics in east China, such as Bohai Bay Basin and Songliao Basin; (2) basins in central China, controlled by eastward compression of the Tibetan Plateau, which are characteristic of thrusting of basin margin and uplift-denudation in basins; (3) basins in west China such as the Tarim, Junggar and Qaidam Basins, which are associated with north-directed compression and exhibit thrust movements and flexural subsidence along basin margins. Their structural style is that of basin-and-range type. We conclude that Himalayan tectonic movements may have controlled the late hydrocarbon accumulation in China.

Asian Economic Cooperation and Integration: Progress, Prospects and Challenges

Asian Economic Cooperation and Integration: Progress, Prospects and Challenges. By Asian Development Bank. Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2005. Pp. 388. This publication is based on papers presented at the High-Level Conference on Asia's Economic Cooperation and Integration held on 1-2 July 2004, organized by the Asian Development Bank. It is aimed at promoting understanding of the different aspects of regional co-operation in Asia. Divided into five parts, Parts 1 and 2 provide a broad overview of Asia's standing in the world economy and an introduction into growing regional co-operation in the fields of trade, investment, and monetary and financial integration. Part 3 delves into a series of issues relating to trade and investment regional co-operation, while Part 4 covers a range of monetary and financial cooperation topics. Part 5 concludes with issues relating to infrastructure development and prospects for regional co-operation in that area. This publication is a welcome addition to the growing literature on economic co-operation in Asia. Overall, it is a recommended read for practitioners and novices alike, not least due to the comprehensive coverage it provides on the myriad initiatives and developments on keys fronts of Asian economic co-operation. Up-to-date statistics are also sprinkled throughout the book thus making discussions current with implications for policy-making. In particular, the inclusion of an oft-neglected issue of infrastructure co-operation makes a good attempt to address and highlight a pressing issue in many parts of Asia, without which further developments on the trade and investment fronts would be hampered. The opening chapter embarks on a rather commendable attempt to introduce and link the remaining chapters. Detailed background of ASEAN economic linkages, ASEAN ties with China and India, as well as financial integration and monetary co-operation in the region in the wake of the 1997 crisis are particularly helpful for readers who are not well acquainted already with the region. The identifying of nuances in the various waves of regionalism, the section on developments of the Asian Bond Market, as well as the discussion on prospects for deeper integration are some highlights of the chapter. Part 2 of the book spanning Chapters 2 to 4, focuses proper on regional co-operation and prospects with particular attention paid to Asia's position in the world economy. Interesting ideas can be gleaned from Chapter 3 including a suggestion of an FTA involving Japan, ASEAN, China, India, Korea (JACIK), the expansion of the existing Asia swap facility, setting up of a Reserve Bank of Asia, as well as that of an Asian strategic petroleum reserve (SPR) to safeguard against rising oil prices from the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Given the growing presence of the Indian economy as well as large foreign reserves accumulation in China, India, Japan, and Singapore, to name a few, these are ideas worth mulling over. Chapter 4 follows closely with a relevant discussion on the appropriate sequencing with regards to trade, monetary and financial integration. The debate on the use of the optimum currency area (OCA) criteria to judge monetary integration is again brought on board. Here, the author provides a broad survey of the literature as well as empirical results that would prove useful in considering this complex issue. Part 3 of the book spanning Chapters 5 to 7, goes in-depth into the topics most persistently discussed; that of trade and investment. Possible pitfalls of the current regionalism drive is a recurrent concern, with Chapter 6 focusing on issues of free trade agreements (FTAs) in relation to the rules of origin (ROO), the scarcity of resources, and the stumbling block impact on multilateralism. case studies of ASEAN's trade with India and China also provide insights into economic relations of Southeast Asia with the growing economic powerhouses in the region. …

Recent developments in study of the typical superimposed basins and petroleum accumulation in China: Exemplified by the Tarim Basin

Most of petroliferous sedimentary basins in China have experienced multiple phases of tectonic evolution and deposition, and are characterized by tectonic and depositional superimposition. The term “superimposed basin” is suggested to describe those basins which consist of two or more simple prototype basins superimposing vertically and/or coalescing laterally. The characteristics of petroliferous superimposed basins are “multiple stages of basin forming and reworking, multiple layers of source rocks, multiple periods of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion, multiple periods of petroleum migration-accumulation-escape”. Therefore, applying the wave process analysis method to studying the process of basin formation, hydrocarbon generation, and reservoir formation, and then establishing theory of “petroleum accumulation system” is helpful to enhancing petroleum exploration efficiency in superimposed basins. This paper will, based on case study in the Tarim basin, report the major developments in studying basin formation, hydrocarbon generation and petroleum accumulation. In study of basin formation, (1) geophysical comprehensive profiles reveal that the Tarim plate has been subducted beneath the Tianshan orogenic belt with an interfinger structure and that the deep structure in the eastern section of the Tianshan orogenic belt is different from that in the western section. (2) The vertical variation in debris and geochemical composition reveals the nature and Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution history of the Kuqa Depression. (3) Field investigation and paleostress reconstruction show that the Kuqa Depression has undergone gravity-driven extension in sedimentary cover when the Tianshan uplifted vertically. In hydrocarbon generation study, new developments include (1) setting environmental index to judge high grade source rocks in marine carbonates, and (2) establishing the lower limit of the organic carbon content for effective carbonate source rocks. In petroleum accumulation study, (1) methods of determining paleopressure and paleotemperature of forming fluid inclusions have been established. (2) The petroleum source analysis has indicated that the crude oil in the Lunnan and Tahe oilfields are derived from the source rocks of the Middle and Upper Ordovician. (3) Three generations of oil inclusions from the Lunnan oilfield have been recognized and dated.

Coal-generated oil in Tuha Basin

The Turpan-Harmi (abbreviated to Tuha below) Basin is a typical basin of coal-generated oil accumulation in China. The Middle-Lower Jurassic coal measures are considered the main source beds. Hence, both desmocollinite and suberinite are considered the contributors for coal-generated oil. Principal geochemical features of the crude oil in the Tuha Basin are rich in alkanes (70%—80%), high pristane/phytane ratio (6—8), abundant heavy carbon isotope (δ13C PDB= -26%–-23%) and absolute GP sterane predominance. The hydrocarbon generation process from the coal series is characterized by multistages, early generation and early expulsion.

Returns to Education in China

We were fortunate in having access to a survey of 800 adults in Nanjing that was conducted by the International Wool Secretariate in 1986. The survey was intended for market research (e.g., brand recognition), but questions were asked about the respondent's age, occupation, income, and education level. These questions, though not ideally worded, were sufficient for the undertaking of a returns-to-education study. We believe the data to be unique and, of course, the issue of interest is whether a member of the workforce in China faces investment decisions on education similar to those faced elsewhere. The influence of sex and marital status on the level of income achieved by an individual was also examined. The basic equation modeled personal income as a nonlinear function of schooling and experience, but multicollinearity problems were encountered. As a result, a production function approach was successfully adapted to the returns-toeducation model. The collinearity problem was overcome, and this approach allowed the ease of substitution of education for experience in income generation to be examined more formally. An additional problem of errors in variables arose from a failing in questionnaire design and was handled statistically.

Structural Styles of Mesozoic-Cenozoic Petroliferous Basins of China: ABSTRACT

The continental lithosphere of China is situated at the junction of the Marginal Pacific tectonic domain and the Tethys-Himalayan tectonic domain. The former is characterized by a series of extensional tectonics, including taphrogenesis and the latter by a series of compressional tectonics with orogenesis, all taking place during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The Marginal Pacific crust of east China was attenuated by rifting and a north-northeast-trending of Mesozoic-Cenozoic basins developed, e.g., the Songliao basin, the North China basin, etc. Rifting followed mainly preexisting zones of basement weakness for the most part. Then, basin and range structures formed and large, fault-bounded basins subsided. Extensional structural styles have prevailed in Mesozoic-Cenozoic basins of east China: listric normal faults and tilted blocks in the basement; detached normal faults, rollover anticlines, and drape fold in the sedimentary cover. These structural styles are favorable for hydrocarbon accumulation, and indeed the famous Daqing and Huabei oil fields are located in the above-mentioned basins. The crust of west China was thickened by collision and a series of Mesozoic-Cenozoic intermontane basins or foredeeps were formed, e.g., the Qaidam basin, Jinquan basin etc. Compressional tectonic styles are predominant in the Mesozoic-Cenozoic basins of west China; compressive fault blocks and ramps in the basement; detached reverse faults and parallel folds in the cover. The Mesozoic-Cenozoic basins of China have undergone numerous tectonic events, with earlier structural styles always overprinted by later ones, e.g., compressional structural styles are sometimes converted into extensional ones. On the other hand, most basins of China have twofold mechanical behavior, e.g., extensional shear and subsequent compressional shear. The combination of taphrogenesis, orogenesis, shearing, and gravitation, which seems to have controlled the development of Mesozoic-Cenozoic basins, formed favorable traps for hydrocarbon accumulation in China. End_of_Article - Last_Page 971------------