Accumulation Area Ratio Research Articles

Changing regimes of gangotri and surrounding glaciers: A case study of Garhwal Himalaya, India

In the present study, 16 selected glaciers including Gangotri and surrounding covering an area of 2982.14sqkm, Garhwal Himalaya (Uttrakhand) India were mapped and their boundaries were delineated using the Landsat MSS (3rd November, 1976), TM (16th October, 1990), ETM+(18th October, 1999 and) and OLI-TIRS (29th Oct., 2013) ) and ASTER images. In this study a total of 101 glacial lakes are identified in 2013 while the number of identified glacial lakes was 69 and 128 in 1990 and 1999. The valley of Gangotri glacier and Satopanth glacier show huge increase in number and area of glacial lakes especially supraglacial lakes. Several morphometric parameters like length, width, total area, perimeter, accumulation area, ablation area, area accumulation ratio (AAR), thickness etc. were estimated for detailed morphometric analysis among the mapped glaciers. The mapping of selected 16 glaciers during the period 1972–2013 reveals that the glacier covered area reduced from 409.08 to 377.83sqkm observing approx. 7.63% deglaciation in the Gangotri and surrounding area. Gangotri glacier shown a net loss of 4.68% area during 1972–2013 while it shows a net gain of 1.32% area during 1999–2013. Advancement in the total glacier area was also recorded during 1979–1999. A higher rate of retreat of the some of the glaciers was observed during 1989–2006 as compared to the retreat during 1972–1989. The average elevation of the ablation zone of Gangotri glacier showed an upward shift from 3944m (1972) to 4033m (2013) which may be a consequence of a shift in Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) reflecting imbalance. In this study it is estimated that the Gangotri glacier was retreated 1.60km between 1972–2013. During the period of 1972–2013, it was observed that maximum retreat among selected 16 glacier were mainly Arwa, Raktavaran, Panpatia, Chaturangi, Satopant glaciers (9.47km, 6.43km, 3.87 and 3.04km respectively).

Altitudinal variations of temperature, equilibrium line altitude, and accumulation-area ratio in Upper Indus Basin

Quantitative measures of adiabatic lapse rate, equilibrium line altitude (ELA), and accumulation-area ratio (AAR) are important to understand the hydrological processes and conduct hydrological modeling in a highly glaciated watershed. We present a detailed analysis of temperature data from 21 climatic stations, hypsometric analyses of glacier distributions, and a method to analyze ablation gradients and runoff curves concurrently to quantify these parameters for the watersheds of the Upper Indus Basin (UIB), with 15,062 km2 of glacierized area and an elevation range of 361–8,611 m. We show that the ELA varies considerably from one watershed to another, implying a highly variable upper elevation limit up to which melting of snows and glaciers takes place throughout the basin. This is in sharp contrast to the assertions made by previous researchers. We show that the ELA is as low as 4,840 m in Astore watershed and it is as high as 6,200 m in Shyok watershed. In accordance with the variation of ELA, the AAR also varies considerably from one watershed to another. It is as low as 0.10 in Gilgit and as high as 0.65 in Zanskar watersheds. We ascribe 15–20% uncertainty to these estimates of ELA and AAR in UIB.

Effect of miR-467b on atherosclerosis of rats.

To observe the effect of miR-467b on the atherosclerosis (AS) of rats with apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene knockout (ApoE(-/-)). ApoE(-/-) rats were fed with high fat and high cholesterol diet and were randomly divided into group A, group B and group C, with 10 rats in each group. Group A: rats were injected with ApoE agonist through the caudal vein; group B: rats were injected with ApoE antagonist through the caudal vein; group C: as negative control group. Enzyme oxidation method was used to detect the blood lipid levels of rats. Western blotting method was used to detect the aortic lipoprotein lipase (LPL) expression levels of rats. HE staining and oil red O staining were performed to observe the AS lesions and lipid accumulation state. Compared with group C, blood lipid level, aortic intima and aortic sinus lipid accumulation area ratio, aortic sinus lesion area and LPL expression level in group A significantly reduced; while blood lipid level, aortic intima and aortic sinus lipid accumulation area ratio, aortic sinus lesion area, and LPL expression level in group B significantly increased, with the statistical difference (P<0.05). miR-467b can alleviate the AS lesions of ApoE(-/-) rats, and its inhibiting effect on AS may be related to LPL expression.

Long-term Change in Ablation Area of Tropical Glaciers by Landsat Data

Glacier meltwater is one of the main water resources in the capital of Bolivia. To understand current situation of glacier decline is crucial for better water resources management. This study investigated temporal and spatial glacial area during the past three decades between 1984 and 2014. Object glaciers were Tuni, Condoriri, and Huayna Potosi West Glacier with Landsat images. Glacier-covered area by Tuni, Condoriri, and Huayna Potosi West Glacier diminished by 70%, 52%, and 50%, individually from 1984 to 2014. Second, we estimated a front altitude and an equilibrium line altitude for each glacier. Front altitudes for three glaciers rise rapidly after 2000. Finally, we evaluated long-term change in ablation area for selected glaciers. Results showed that accumulation area ratio (AAR) increased with decrease in ablation area and this led to decrease in water resources.

An assessment of basin-scale glaciological and hydrological sensitivities in the Hindu Kush–Himalaya

Abstract.Glacier responses to future climate change will affect hydrology at sub-basin scales. The main goal of this study is to assess glaciological and hydrological sensitivities of sub-basins throughout the Hindu Kush-Himalaya region. We use a simple geometrical analysis based on a full glacier inventory and digital elevation model to estimate sub-basin equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) from assumptions of steady-state accumulation area ratios. The ELA response to an increase in temperature is expressed as a function of mean annual precipitation, derived from a range of high-altitude studies. Changes in glacier contributions to streamflow in response to increased temperatures are examined for scenarios of both static and adjusted glacier geometries. On average, glacier contributions to streamflow increase by ~50% for a +1 K warming based on a static geometry. Large decreases (-60% on average) occur in all basins when glacier geometries are instantaneously adjusted to reflect the new ELA. Finally, we provide estimates of sub-basin glacier response times that suggest a majority of basins will experience declining glacier contributions by 2100.

Meteorological conditions, seasonal and annual mass balances of Chhota Shigri Glacier, western Himalaya, India

AbstractWe present the updated glaciological mass balance (MB) of Chhota Shigri Glacier, the longest continuous annual MB record in the Hindu-Kush Karakoram Himalaya (HKH) region. Additionally, 4 years of seasonal MBs are presented and analyzed using the data acquired at an automatic weather station (AWS-M) installed in 2009 on a lateral moraine (4863ma.s.l.). The glaciological MB series since 2002 is first recalculated using an updated glacier hypsometry and then validated against geodetic MB derived from satellite stereo-imagery between 2005 (SPOT5) and 2014 (Pléiades). Chhota Shigri Glacier lost mass between 2002 and 2014 with a cumulative glaciological MB of –6.72mw.e. corresponding to a mean annual glacier-wide MB (Ba) of –0.56mw.e. a–1. Equilibrium-line altitude (ELA0) for the steady-state condition is calculated as ~4950ma.s.l., corresponding to an accumulation–area ratio (AAR0) of ~61%. Analysis of seasonal MBs between 2009 and 2013 with air temperature from AWS-M and precipitation from the nearest meteorological station at Bhuntar (1050ma.s.l.) suggests that the summer monsoon is the key season driving the interannual variability of Ba for this glacier. The intensity of summer snowfall events controls the Ba evolution via controlling summer glacier-wide MB (Bs).

Former plateau ice fields in the Godeanu Mountains, Southern Carpathians: First evidence of glaciated peneplains in the Carpathians

The existence of plateau ice fields in the Southern Carpathians has long been suggested due to the widespread presence of the Borăscu surface in the region. The Borăscu surface is a peneplain consisting of flat plateaus in the elevation range of 1800–2200 m a.s.l. It is present throughout the Southern Carpathians with the most typical appearance in the Godeanu Mountains. These plateaus could have served as ice accumulation sites during the Pleistocene glaciations as they were well above the steady-state equilibrium-line altitude (ELA0). Direct geomorphological evidence on the existence of plateau ice fields, and thus well founded reconstructions, are absent due to the lack of glacial landforms on the plateaus. In order to test the existence of plateau ice fields a previous geomorphological survey and theoretical ice surface profiles, based on a steady-state perfectly plastic ice flow model, were used. Based on these methods maps and three-dimensional surface models of the former glaciers were created. The ELA0s of the paleoglaciers were estimated by the accumulation-area ratio (AAR) method. According to our results, three major ice fields on the central plateaus and several smaller ice fields on wide saddles were present in the Godeanu Mountains during the maximal glaciation. The ice fields fed numerous surrounding valley glaciers. Several independent valley and cirque glaciers, completely separated from the ice fields, were also present further from the central mass of the mountain range. The average ELA0 of the northern, 1855 ± 2 m a.s.l., and the southern, 1700 ± 2 m a.s.l., glaciers differed greatly. We suggest that the surprisingly high average ELA0 of the northern glaciers was mostly caused by the missing lower sections of these paleoglaciers from our reconstructions, due to the destroyed terminal glacial landforms. However, the terminal glacial landforms are quite well preserved in the southern valleys. Thus, the average ELA0 of the southern paleoglaciers was suitable to correlate the maximal glaciation of the Godeanu Mountains with the maximal glaciation of the neighbouring Retezat Mountains.

Mass loss and imbalance of glaciers along the Andes Cordillera to the sub-Antarctic islands

Here, we examine available glacier mass-balance records between 1993 and 2012 for Andes Cordillera, South America (6.5°N–45.8°S), and the sub-Antarctic islands around the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula (62.7°S–63.8°S) to determine their recent mass loss and imbalance with the present climate. The mean annual observed mass-balance Ba changed from −620±390 (1993–2002) to −740±240kgm−2yr−1 (2003–2012) and for this past decade showed a decrease in Ba from south to north. These glaciers had a mean accumulation area ratio of 0.42, which is below the AAR value for glaciers in equilibrium, reflecting mean area and volume imbalances of 23% and 27%, respectively. Glaciers in the northern part of Andes Cordillera are most out of balance with the present climate (33%), while glaciers on the sub-Antarctic islands are only slightly out of balance (4%). We identified a spatiotemporal cycle of Ba that distinguishes glaciers on the sub-Antarctic islands from glaciers in the Andes using an Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis. This analysis also revealed that South America should be divided into three individual glacier regions, and not two regions as earlier stated. Overall, the spatiotemporal cycles identified correlate to the multivariate El Niño Southern Oscillation Index instantaneously (zero-year lag-time) and to the Pacific Decadal Oscillation with an approximately eight-year lag-time.

Four decades of glacier mass balance observations in the Indian Himalaya

Understanding the glacier mass balance is necessary to explain the rate of shrinkage and to infer the impact of climate change. The present study provides an overview of the glacier mass balance records by glaciological, geodetic, hydrological and accumulation-area ratio (AAR) and specific mass balance relationship methods in the Indian Himalaya since 1970s. It suggests that the mass balance measurements by glaciological methods have been conducted for ten glaciers in the western Himalaya, four glaciers in the central Himalaya and one in the eastern Himalaya. Hydrological mass balance has been conducted only on Siachen Glacier from 1987 to 1991. Geodetic method has been attempted for the Lahaul–Spiti region for a short time span during 1999–2011 and Hindu Kush–Karakoram–Himalaya region from 2003 to 2008. We compared in situ specific balance data series with specific mass balance derived from AAR and specific mass balance relationship. The results derived from existing and newly presented regression model based on AAR and specific mass balance relationship induced unrealistic specific mass balance for several glaciers. We also revised AAR0 and ELA0 based on available in situ AAR and specific mass balance data series of Indian Himalayan glaciers. In general, in situ specific and cumulative specific mass balance observed over different regions of the Indian Himalayan glaciers shows mostly negative mass balance years with a few positive ones during 1974–2012. On a regional level, the geodetic studies suggest that on the whole western, the central and the eastern Himalaya experienced vast thinning during the last decade (2000s). Conversely, Karakoram region showed slight mass gain during almost similar period. However, the glaciological, hydrological and geodetic mass balance data appear to exhibit short time series bias. We therefore recommend creation of benchmark glaciers network for future research to determine the impact of climate change on the Himalayan cryosphere.

A GIS tool for automatic calculation of glacier equilibrium-line altitudes

A toolbox for the automated calculation of glacier equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) using the Accumulation Area Ratio, Area-Altitude Balance Ratio, Area-Altitude and Kurowski methods is presented. These are the most commonly-used methods of ELA calculation in palaeo-glacier reconstructions. The toolbox has been coded in Python and runs in ArcGIS requiring only the reconstructed surface of the palaeo-glacier (a DEM) as input. Through fast and automatic calculation this toolbox simplifies the process of ELA determination and can successfully work both for a single glacier and for large datasets of multiple glaciers.

Contrasting glacier variations of Glaciar Perito Moreno and Glaciar Ameghino, Southern Patagonia Icefield

AbstractGlaciar Perito Moreno (GPM) and Glaciar Ameghino (GA), Southern Patagonia Icefield, are in contact in the accumulation area, but have shown contrasting frontal variations in the past few decades. To investigate recent changes of the two glaciers and processes controlling the different responses to similar climate conditions, we measured surface elevation change from 2000 to 2008 and terminus positions from 1999 to 2012 using several types of satellite data. GPM shows no significant changes in terminus position and 0.4 ± 0.3 m a–1 thickening over the period, whereas GA retreated 55 ± 2 m a–1 and thinned 2.6 ± 0.3 m a–1. Mass-balance measurements over the period 1999/2000 show that accumulation at GPM was ten times greater than that at GA, but ablation was only three times greater. The mass-balance–altitude profile is similar for the two glaciers; differences in the mass-balance distribution are caused by differences in the accumulation–area ratio (AAR). Our results suggest that the AAR and the calving flux exert strong control on the evolution of glaciers in the region.

Peculiar Characteristics of Fragmentation of Glaciers: A Case Study of Western Himalaya, India

The areal extent of many Himalayan glaciers is decreasing where number of glaciers is increasing. This increasing number is subject to the fragmentation of limbs of main trunk glacier. However, disintegration of limbs is not observed in all the glacier system. This paper emphases the scenario of the fragmentation occurred in glaciers. Two glaciers from the two different basins have been taken into the consideration for this study. The peculiar characteristic of these glaciers is that, the tributary glaciers are showing less retreat in compare to main trunk glaciers. Due to this reason the rate of shift in snout is higher in main trunk glaciers than tributary glaciers. However, in recent data the tributary glaciers have experienced little higher loss in glacial ice than main glacier. But the shift of snout in main trunk glacier is no doubt surprising since past. Therefore, various parameters have been examined to identify the cause of such a behavior of glaciers. The common factors observed in both the glaciers are accumulation area ratio which is higher, snow line altitude which is lower in tributary glaciers for the period of 2005-2013. Another factor is the orientation as tributary glaciers are towards NE direction. In addition, slope of Dharlang glacier (main limb) is 4? where it is 18? in tributary glacier.

Separating snow, clean and debris covered ice in the Upper Indus Basin, Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalayas, using Landsat images between 1998 and 2002

Summary The Hindukush Karakoram Himalayan mountains contain some of the largest glaciers of the world, and supply melt water from perennial snow and glaciers to the Upper Indus Basin (UIB) upstream of Tarbela dam, which constitutes greater than 80% of the annual flows, and caters to the needs of millions of people in the Indus Basin. It is therefore important to study the response of perennial snow and glaciers in the UIB under changing climatic conditions, using improved hydrological modeling, glacier mass balance, and observations of glacier responses. However, the available glacier inventories and datasets only provide total perennial-snow and glacier cover areas, despite the fact that snow, clean ice and debris covered ice have different melt rates and densities. This distinction is vital for improved hydrological modeling and mass balance studies. This study, therefore, presents a separated perennial snow and glacier inventory (perennial snow-cover on steep slopes, perennial snow-covered ice, clean and debris covered ice) based on a semi-automated method that combines Landsat images and surface slope information in a supervised maximum likelihood classification to map distinct glacier zones, followed by manual post processing. The accuracy of the presented inventory falls well within the accuracy limits of available snow and glacier inventory products. For the entire UIB, estimates of perennial and/or seasonal snow on steep slopes, snow-covered ice, clean and debris covered ice zones are 7238 ± 724, 5226 ± 522, 4695 ± 469 and 2126 ± 212 km2 respectively. Thus total snow and glacier cover is 19,285 ± 1928 km2, out of which 12,075 ± 1207 km2 is glacier cover (excluding steep slope snow-cover). Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) estimates based on the Snow Line Elevation (SLE) in various watersheds range between 4800 and 5500 m, while the Accumulation Area Ratio (AAR) ranges between 7% and 80%. 0 °C isotherms during peak ablation months (July and August) range between ∼ 5500 and 6200 m in various watersheds. These outputs can be used as input to hydrological models, to estimate spatially-variable degree day factors for hydrological modeling, to separate glacier and snow-melt contributions in river flows, and to study glacier mass balance, and glacier responses to changing climate.

GIS analysis of cirques on Vestfirðir, northwest Iceland: implications for palaeoclimate

This study presents the first regional analysis of cirques on Vestfirðir, NW Iceland, using a Geographical Information System (GIS). The length, width, elevation of cirque‐floor, latitude and the distance to the modern coastline (both ocean and fjord coastlines) of cirques were quantified using ArcGIS. The topographical analysis revealed a total of 100 cirques on western and northern Vestfirðir. Several additional cirques are present, but they had poorly defined toewalls, making the cirque‐floor difficult to identify. Mean cirque length is 515 m and mean cirque width is 752 m. The modal orientation of the aspect of cirques is northeast, with a strong secondary mode to the northwest. Cirques at low elevations are more abundant close to the ocean, whereas cirques further from the ocean are present at high elevations. Three techniques were used to reconstruct past equilibrium‐line altitudes (ELAs) of cirque glaciers: the cirque‐floor method, the altitude‐ratio method and the accumulation‐area ratio method. The largest range of past ELAs is generated from the cirque‐floor method with values from 40 up to 730 m. Mean past ELA values range from ∼395 to 423 m depending on the method used to reconstruct former ELAs. A strong positive relationship is observed between past ELA values and distance to the ocean demonstrating the importance of access to a moisture source for glacier survival. This relationship is stronger than the relationship between former ELAs and latitude. Based on the small size of cirque glaciers, it is likely that even minor fluctuations in the Irminger Current and the East Greenland Current influence cirque glaciation on Vestfirðir.

Glacial mass balance changes in the Karakoram and Himalaya based on CMIP5 multi-model climate projections

The impact of future climate change on the glaciers in the Karakoram and Himalaya (KH) is investigated using CMIP5 multi-model temperature and precipitation projections, and a relationship between glacial accumulation-area ratio and mass balance developed for the region based on the last 30 to 40 years of observational data. We estimate that the current glacial mass balance (year 2000) for the entire KH region is -6.6 +/- 1 Gta(-1), which decreases about sixfold to -35 +/- 2 Gta(-1) by the 2080s under the high emission scenario of RCP8.5. However, under the low emission scenario of RCP2.6 the glacial mass loss only doubles to -12 +/- 2 Gta(-1) by the 2080s. We also find that 10.6 and 27 % of the glaciers could face `eventual disappearance' by the end of the century under RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 respectively, underscoring the threat to water resources under high emission scenarios.

Hypsometry and sensitivity of the mass balance to changes in equilibrium-line altitude: the case of the Southern Patagonia Icefield

AbstractWe study the relation between glacier hypsometry and sensitivity of mass-balance rate to changes in equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) to assess whether hypsometry can reliably be used to estimate the sensitivity of unmeasured glaciers to changes in ELA. We express the sensitivity of mass-balance rate to ELA, dḂ/ dELA, as a function of accumulation–area ratio (AAR), its derivative against altitude, dAAR/dELA, and mass-balance functions of ELA. We then apply the concept to 139 glaciers in the Southern Patagonia Icefield for which we derive hypsometry and AAR, and analyze the influence of hypsometry on their mass-balance rate sensitivity. We confirm that glaciers where the bulk of area is located above (below) the ELA are the least (most) sensitive. Glaciers with unimodal hypsometric curves where the peak of area fraction is around the present ELA, and glaciers with bi-or multimodal area distributions, with the ELA located approximately between the bulges, have intermediate sensitivities. We conclude that hypsometry can be used as a first-order estimator of mass-balance rate sensitivity to ELA change.

Analysis of the glacial geomorphological characteristics of the last glacial in the Tianger area, Tien Shan, and their paleoclimate implications

AbstractThe Tianger area in the Tien Shan preserves many glacial landforms to which several methods of estimating ancient equilibrium-line altitudes (ELAs) can be applied. Thus it provides the opportunity to compare different methods and evaluate the correlation between the methods and their errors. This comparison provides guidance in the application of these methods in other mid-latitude alpine glaciated areas. In this paper we calculate characteristic ratios relating to the ELAs, including accumulation–area ratio (AAR), toe–headwall altitude ratio (THAR), terminus–summit altitude method (TSAM) and Höfer value, and their correlations with each other and the geomorphological characteristics. The AAR of a glacier is small when the slope of the bedrock beneath it is small and the area is large, and the AAR of a glacier with such characteristics is better correlated with its THAR, TSAM and Höfer value. Paleoclimate information derived from these characteristic ratios relating to ELAs is discussed. The glaciers and the glacial climate of the early and middle stage of the last glacial are more continental than those of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Compared with those of the LGM on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau and surrounding mountains, the ELA characteristics of the early and middle stage of the last glacial in the Tianger area show more continental features.

Glacier Retreat in Doda Valley, Zanskar Basin, Jammu &amp; Kashmir, India

Glacier monitoring is important to provide estimates of freshwater storage in Himalayan region. Therefore, understanding the spatio-temporal glacier retreat is important for utilization of the Himalayan water resource. The study area covers Dodavalley, Zanskar basin in Jammu & Kashmir. An attempt is also made here to analyze the glacier retreat and morphometric parameters like, length, width, area, area accumulation ratio (AAR), specific mass balance etc., of the glaciers using multi-temporal satellite data of IRS-1C LISS III of August 2001, Landsat of 1975, 1992 and 2002and in conjunction with Survey of India (SOI) topographical map of 1962 and United State of Geological Survey (USGS) map of 1925. In this study, it was found that, total glacier area loss from 1962 to 2001 is 18.16%. Though in the years 1975 and 1992, there is positive specific mass balance but in the year 2001, specific mass balance of all glaciers was negative.

Sledovi pleistocenske poledenitve na Trnovskem gozdu

Trnovski gozd je visoka kraška planota na dinarskem krasu zahodne Slovenije, ki so jo v pleistocenu preoblikovali tudi ledeniški procesi. Ugotovili smo, da je severna pobočja in podnožje najvišjega osrednjega grebena Golaki pokrival ledenik s površino 4,8 km2 in največjo debelino okoli 180 m. V več odtočnih ledenikih je padal preko strme reliefne stopnje v dolini Belce in Trebuše ter na Hudo polje. Prisojna pobočja Golakov niso bila poledenela. Z metodama deleža akumulacijskega dela ledenika ter zgornje meje bočnih moren smo izračunali ravnovesno mejo ledenikov na višini 1240 m.

Detection of Changes in Glacier Mass Balance Using Satellite and Meteorological Data in Tirungkhad Basin Located in Western Himalaya

Himalayan glaciers and their mass balance are poorly sampled through direct mass balance measurements. Thus, based on Landsat datasets of ETM+ (2000), ETM+ (2006) and TM (2011), mass balance studies of 32 glaciers was carried out using accumulation area ratio (AAR) method in the Tirungkhad river basin, a tributary of Satluj River, located in western Himalayan region. The overall specific mass balance was negative varying from −27 cm (2000) to −41 cm (2011). Out of 32 glaciers, 27 glaciers (81.2 %) showed negative mean mass balance and 5 glaciers (18.7 %) showed positive mean mass balance. Mean of specific mass balance for the year 2000, 2006 and 2011 was found to be −48 cm, −55 cm and −0.61 cm respectively, in case of glaciers with negative mass balance while in case of glaciers with positive mass balance, it was 0.67 cm (2000), 0.56 cm (2006) and 0.47 cm (2011). The investigations suggested a loss of −0.034 km3 of glacial ice for 2000, 0.036 km3 for 2006 and 0.038 km3 for 2011 respectively. The negative mass balance of the glaciers since 2000 correlates well with the increasing trend of annual mean temperature and decreasing trend of precipitation (snow water equivalent (SWE) and rainfall). Based on Mann Kendall test the temperature and SWE trends were significant at 95 % confidence level, however, the rainfall trend was insignificant.