Accretion History Research Articles

Spin–Orbit Alignment of Early-type Astrometric Binaries and the Origin of Slow Rotators

The spin–orbit alignment of binary stars traces their formation and accretion history. Previous studies of spin–orbit alignment have been limited to small samples, slowly rotating solar-type stars, and/or wide visual binaries that not surprisingly manifest random spin–orbit orientations. We analyze 917 Gaia astrometric binaries across periods P = 100–3000 days (a = 0.5–5 au) that have B8-F1 IV/V primaries (M 1 = 1.5–3 M ⊙) and measured projected rotational velocities v sin i. The primary stars in face-on orbits exhibit substantially smaller v sin i compared to those in edge-on orbits at the 6σ level, demonstrating significant spin–orbit alignment. The primaries in our astrometric binaries are rotating more slowly than their single-star or wide-binary counterparts and therefore comprise the slow-rotator population in the observed bimodal rotational velocity distribution of early-type stars. We discuss formation models of close binaries where some of the disk angular momentum is transferred to the orbit and/or secondary spin, quenching angular momentum flow to the primary spin. The primaries in astrometric binaries with small mass ratios q = M 2/M 1 < 0.3 possess even smaller v sin i, consistent with model predictions. Meanwhile, astrometric binaries with large eccentricities e > 0.4 do not display spin–orbit alignment or spin reduction. Using a Monte Carlo technique, we measure a spin–orbit alignment fraction of F align = 75% ± 5% and an average spin reduction factor of 〈S align〉 = 0.43 ± 0.04. We conclude that 75% of close A-type binaries likely experienced circumbinary disk accretion and probably formed via disk fragmentation and inward disk migration. The remaining 25%, mostly those with e > 0.4, likely formed via core fragmentation and orbital decay via dynamical friction.

Reversing arrested development: a new method to address halo assembly bias

ABSTRACT Halo assembly bias is a phenomenon whereby the clustering of dark matter haloes is dependent on halo properties, such as age, at fixed mass. Understanding the origin of assembly bias is important for interpreting the clustering of galaxies and constraining cosmological models. One proposed explanation for the origin of assembly bias is the truncation of mass accretion in low-mass haloes in the presence of more massive haloes, called ‘arrested development’. Haloes undergoing arrested development would have older measured ages and exhibit stronger clustering than equal mass haloes that have not undergone arrested development. We propose a new method to test the validity of this explanation for assembly bias and correct for it in cosmological N-body simulations. The method is based on the idea that the early mass accretion history of a halo, before arrested development takes effect, can be used to predict the late-time evolution of the halo in the absence of arrested development. We implement this idea by fitting a model to the early portion of halo accretion histories and extrapolating to late times. We then calculate ‘corrected’ masses and ages for haloes based on this extrapolation and investigate how this impacts the assembly bias signal. We find that correcting for arrested development this way leads to a factor of two reduction in the strength of the assembly bias signal across a range of low-halo masses. This result provides new evidence that arrested development is a cause of assembly bias and validates our approach to mitigating the effect.

High-redshift Halo–Galaxy Connection via Constrained Simulations

The evolution of halos with masses around M h ≈ 1011 M ⊙ and M h ≈ 1012 M ⊙ at redshifts z > 9 is examined using constrained N-body simulations. The average specific mass accretion rates, Ṁh/Mh , exhibit minimal mass dependence and generally agree with existing literature. Individual halo accretion histories, however, vary substantially. About one-third of simulations reveal an increase in Ṁh around z ≈ 13. Comparing simulated halos with observed galaxies having spectroscopic redshifts, we find that for galaxies at z ≳ 9, the ratio between observed star formation rate and Ṁh is approximately 2%. This ratio remains consistent for the stellar-to-halo mass ratio (SHMR) but only for z ≳ 10. At z ≃ 9, the SHMR is notably lower by a factor of a few. At z ≳ 10, there is an agreement between specific star formation rates (sSFRs) and Ṁh/Mh . However, at z ≃ 9, observed sSFRs exceed simulated values by a factor of 2. It is argued that the mildly elevated SHMR in high-z halos with M h ≈ 1011 M ⊙ can be achieved by assuming the applicability of the local Kennicutt–Schmidt law and a reduced effectiveness of stellar feedback due to deeper gravitational potential of high-z halos of a fixed mass.

Spatially–resolved gas-phase metallicity in Seyfert galaxies

Abstract We explore the relations between the gas-phase metallicity radial profiles (few hundred inner parsec) and multiple galaxy properties for 15 Seyfert galaxies from the AGNIFS (Active Galactic Nuclei Integral Field Spectroscopy) sample using optical Integral Field Unit (IFU) observations from Gemini Multi-Object Spectrographs (GMOS) and Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) processed archival data. The data were selected at z ≲ 0.013 within black hole mass range [6 &amp;lt; log (MBH/M⊙) &amp;lt; 9] with moderate 14–150 keV X-ray luminosities $\left[42\, \lesssim \, \log L_X (\rm erg\, s^{-1})\, \lesssim \, 44\right]$. We estimated the gas-phase metallicity using the strong-line methods and found mean values for the oxygen dependent (Z ∼ 0.75 Z⊙) and nitrogen dependent (Z ∼ 1.14 Z⊙) calibrations. These estimates show excellent agreement with ΔZ ≈ 0.19 dex and ΔZ ≈ 0.18 dex between the mean values from the two strong-line calibrations for GMOS and MUSE respectively, consistent with the order of metallicity uncertainty via the strong-line methods. We contend that our findings align with a scenario wherein local Seyferts have undergone seamless gas accretion histories, resulting in positive metallicity profile over an extended period of time, thereby providing insights into galaxy evolution and the chemical enrichment or depletion of the universe. Additionally, we argue that metal-poor gas inflow from the local interstellar medium (ISM) and accreted through the circumgalactic medium (CGM) onto the galaxy systems regulates the star formation processes by diluting their central metallicity and inverting their metallicity gradients, producing a more prominent anti-correlation between gas-phase metallicity and Eddington ratio.

Galaxy shapes in Magneticum

Context. Despite being one of the most fundamental properties of galaxies that dictate the form of the potential, the 3D shapes are intrinsically difficult to determine from observations. The improving quality of triaxial modeling methods in recent years has made it possible to measure these shapes more accurately. Aims. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the stellar and dark matter (DM) shapes of galaxies and the connection between them. As these shapes are the result of the formation history of a galaxy, we investigate which galaxy properties they are correlated with, which will be especially useful for interpreting the results from dynamical modeling. Methods. Using the hydrodynamical cosmological simulation Magneticum Pathfinder Box4 (uhr), we computed the stellar and DM intrinsic shapes of 690 simulated galaxies with stellar masses above 2 × 1010 M⊙ at three different radii with an iterative unweighted method. We also determined their morphologies, their projected morphological and kinematic parameters, and their fractions of in situ formed stars. Results. The DM follows the stellar component in shape and orientation at three half-mass radii, indicating that DM is heavily influenced by the baryonic potential in the inner parts of the halo. The outer DM halo is independent of the inner properties such as the DM shape or galaxy morphology, however, and is more closely related to the large-scale anisotropy of the gas inflow. Overall, DM halo shapes are prolate, consistent with previous literature. The stellar shapes of galaxies are correlated with their morphology, with early-type galaxies featuring more spherical and prolate shapes than late-type galaxies out to 3 R1/2. Galaxies with more rotational support are flatter, and the stellar shapes are connected to the mass distribution, though not to the mass itself. In particular, more extended early-type galaxies have larger triaxialities at a given mass. Finally, the shapes can be used to better constrain the in situ fraction of stars when combined with the stellar mass. Conclusions. The relations between shape, mass distribution, and in situ formed star fraction of galaxies show that the shapes depend on the details of the accretion history through which the galaxies are formed. The similarities between DM and stellar shapes in the inner regions of galaxy halos signal the importance of baryonic matter for the behavior of DM in galaxies and will be of use for improving the underlying assumptions of dynamical models for galaxies in the future. However, at large radii the shapes of the DM are completely decoupled from the central galaxy, and their shapes and spin are coupled more to the large scale inflow than to the galaxy in the center.

Constraining Cosmological Parameters Using the Splashback Radius of Galaxy Clusters

Cosmological parameters such as ΩM and σ 8 can be measured indirectly using various methods, including galaxy cluster abundance and cosmic shear. These measurements constrain the composite parameter S 8, leading to degeneracy between ΩM and σ 8. However, some structural properties of galaxy clusters also correlate with cosmological parameters, due to their dependence on a cluster’s accretion history. In this work, we focus on the splashback radius, an observable cluster feature that represents a boundary between a cluster and the surrounding Universe. Using a suite of cosmological simulations with a range of values for ΩM and σ 8, we show that the position of the splashback radius around cluster-mass halos is greater in cosmologies with smaller values of ΩM or larger values of σ 8. This variation breaks the degeneracy between ΩM and σ 8 that comes from measurements of the S 8 parameter. We also show that this variation is, in principle, measurable in observations. As the splashback radius can be determined from the same weak lensing analysis already used to estimate S 8, this new approach can tighten low-redshift constraints on cosmological parameters, either using existing data, or using upcoming data such as that from Euclid and LSST.

Stellar Mergers or Truly Young? Intermediate-age Stars on Highly Radial Orbits in the Milky Way’s Stellar Halo

Reconstructing the mass assembly history of the Milky Way relies on obtaining detailed measurements of the properties of many stars in the galaxy, especially in the stellar halo. One of the most constraining quantities is stellar age, as it can shed light on the accretion time and quenching of star formation in merging satellites. However, obtaining reliable age estimates for large samples of halo stars is difficult. We report published ages of 120 subgiant halo stars with highly radial orbits that likely belong to the debris of the Gaia-Enceladus/Sausage (GES) galaxy. The majority of these halo stars are old, with an age distribution characterized by a median of 11.6 Gyr and a 16th (84th) percentile of 10.5 (12.7) Gyr. However, the distribution is skewed, with a tail of younger stars that span ages down to ∼6–9 Gyr. All highly radial halo stars have chemical and kinematic/orbital quantities that associate them with the GES debris. Initial results suggest that these intermediate-age stars are not a product of mass transfer and/or stellar mergers, which can bias their age determination low. If this conclusion is upheld by upcoming spectrophotometric studies, then the presence of these stars will pose an important challenge for constraining the properties of the GES merger and the accretion history of the galaxy.

Metallicity distributions of halo stars: do they trace the Galactic accretion history?

The standard cosmological scenario predicts a hierarchical formation for galaxies. Many substructures have been found in the Galactic halo, usually identified as clumps in kinematic spaces, like the energy-angular momentum space ($E-L_z$), under the hypothesis that these quantities should be conserved during the interaction. If these clumps also feature different chemical abundances, such as the metallicity distribution function (MDF), these two arguments together (different kinematic and chemical properties) are often used to motivate their association with distinct and independent merger debris. The aim of this study is to explore to what extent we can couple kinematic characteristics and metallicities of stars in the Galactic halo to reconstruct the accretion history of the Milky Way (MW). In particular, we want to understand whether different clumps in the $E-L_z$ space with different MDFs should be associated with distinct merger debris. We analysed dissipationless, self-consistent, high-resolution N-body simulations of a MW-type galaxy accreting a satellite with a mass ratio of 1:10, with different orbital parameters and different metallicity gradients, which were assigned a posteriori. We confirm that accreted stars from a sim 1:10 mass ratio merger event redistribute in a wide range of $E$ and $L_z$, due to the dynamical friction process, and are thus not associated with a single region. Because satellite stars with different metallicities can be deposited in different regions of the $E-L_z$ space (on average the more metal-rich ones end up more gravitationally bound to the MW), this implies that a single accretion of sim 1:10 can manifest with different MDFs, in different regions of the $E-L_z$ space. Groups of stars with different $E$, $L_z$, and metallicities may be interpreted as originating from different satellite galaxies, but our analysis shows that these interpretations are not physically motivated. In fact, as we show, the coupling of kinematic information with MDFs to reconstruct the accretion history of the MW can bias the reconstructed merger tree towards increasing the number of past accretions and decreasing the masses of the progenitor galaxies.

Galaxy archaeology for wet mergers: Globular cluster age distributions in the Milky Way and nearby galaxies

Context. Identifying past wet merger activity in galaxies has been a longstanding issue in extragalactic formation history studies. Gaia’s 6D kinematic measurements in our Milky Way (MW) have vastly extended the possibilities for Galactic archaeology, leading to the discovery of a multitude of early mergers in the MW’s past. As recent work has established a link between younger globular clusters (GCs; less than about 10–11 Gyr old) and wet galaxy merger events, the MW provides an ideal laboratory for testing which GC properties can be used to trace extragalactic galaxy formation histories. Aims. To test the hypothesis that GCs trace wet mergers, we relate the measured GC age distributions of the MW and three nearby galaxies, M 31, NGC 1407, and NGC 3115, to their merger histories and interpret the connection with wet mergers through an empirical model for GC formation. Methods. The GC ages of observed galaxies are taken from a variety of studies to analyze their age distributions side-by-side with the model. For the MW, we additionally cross-match the GCs with their associated progenitor host galaxies to disentangle the connection to the GC age distribution. For the modeled GCs, we take galaxies with similar GC age distributions as observed to compare their accretion histories with those inferred through observations. Results. We find that the MW GC age distribution is bimodal, mainly caused by younger GCs (10–11 Gyr old associated with Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE) and in part by unassociated high-energy GCs. The GSE GC age distribution also appears to be bimodal. We propose that the older GSE GCs (12–13 Gyr old) were accreted together with GSE, while the younger ones formed as a result of the merger. For the nearby galaxies, we find that clear peaks in the GC age distributions coincide with active early gas-rich merger phases. Even small signatures in the GC age distributions agree well with the expected wet formation histories of the galaxies inferred through other observed tracers. From the models, we predict that the involved cold gas mass can be estimated from the number of GCs found in the formation burst. Conclusions. Multimodal GC age distributions can trace massive wet mergers as a result of GCs being formed through them. From the laboratory of our own MW and nearby galaxies we conclude that the ages of younger GC populations of galaxies can be used to infer the wet merger history of a galaxy.

Extended Emission-line Regions in Poststarburst Galaxies Hosting Tidal Disruption Events

We report the discovery of an extended emission-line region (EELR) in MUSE observations of Markarian 950, a nearby (z = 0.01628) poststarburst (PSB) galaxy that hosted the tidal disruption event (TDE) iPTF 16fnl. The EELR requires a nonstellar ionizing continuum with a luminosity Lion,min≳1043 erg s−1, inconsistent with the current weak state (L IR,AGN < 2.5 × 1042 erg s−1) of the galactic nucleus. The ionized gas has low velocity (∼–50 km s−1) and low turbulence (σ gas ≲ 50 km s−1) and is kinematically decoupled from the stellar motions, indicating that the gas kinematics is not active galactic nucleus (AGN) driven. Markarian 950 is the third PSB galaxy to host a weak nuclear ionizing source as well as an EELR and a TDE. The overall properties of these three galaxies, including the kinematics and accretion history, are unusual but strikingly similar. We estimate that the incidence of EELRs in PSB-TDE hosts is a factor of ∼10 × higher than in other PSB galaxies. This suggests that a gas-rich postmerger environment is a key ingredient in driving elevated TDE rates. Based on the current observations, we cannot rule out that the EELRs may be powered through an elevated TDE rate in these galaxies. If the EELRs are not TDE powered, the presence of intermittent AGN activity, and in particular the fading of the AGN, may be associated with an increased TDE rate and/or an increased rate of detecting TDEs.

Self-similar mass accretion history in scale-free simulations

ABSTRACT Using a scale-free N-body simulation generated with the abacusN-body code, we test the robustness of halo mass accretion histories via their convergence to self-similarity. We compare two halo finders, rockstar and compaso. We find superior self-similarity in halo mass accretion histories determined using rockstar, with convergence to 5 per cent or better between $\sim\!\! 10^2$ and $10^5$ particles. For compaso, we find weaker convergence over a similar region, with at least 10 per cent between $\sim\!\! 10^2$ and $10^4$ particles. Furthermore, we find that the convergence to self-similarity improves as the simulation evolves, with the largest and deepest regions of convergence appearing after the scale factor quadrupled from the time at which non-linear structures begin to form. With sufficient time evolution, halo mass accretion histories are converged to self-similarity within 5 per cent with as few as $\sim\!\! 70$ particles for compaso and within 2 per cent for as few as $\sim\!\! 30$ particles for rockstar.

Surveying the Onset and Evolution of Supermassive Black Holes at High-z with AXIS

The nature and origin of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) remain an open matter of debate within the scientific community. While various theoretical scenarios have been proposed, each with specific observational signatures, the lack of sufficiently sensitive X-ray observations hinders the progress of observational tests. In this white paper, we present how AXIS will contribute to solving this issue. With an angular resolution of 1.5″ on-axis and minimal off-axis degradation, we designed a deep survey capable of reaching flux limits in the [0.5–2] keV range of approximately 2 × 10−18 erg s−1 cm−2 over an area of 0.13 deg2 in approximately 7 million seconds (7 Ms). Furthermore, we planned an intermediate depth survey covering approximately 2 deg2 and reaching flux limits of about 2 × 10−17 erg s−1 cm−2 in order to detect a significant number of SMBHs with X-ray luminosities (LX) of approximately 1042 erg s−1 up to z∼10. These observations will enable AXIS to detect SMBHs with masses smaller than 105 M⊙, assuming Eddington-limited accretion and a typical bolometric correction for Type II AGN. AXIS will provide valuable information on the seeding and population synthesis models of SMBHs, allowing for more accurate constraints on their initial mass function (IMF) and accretion history from z∼0–10. To accomplish this, AXIS will leverage the unique synergy of survey telescopes such as the JWST, Roman, Euclid, Vera Rubin Telescope, and the new generation of 30 m class telescopes. These instruments will provide optical identification and redshift measurements, while AXIS will discover the smoking gun of nuclear activity, particularly in the case of highly obscured AGN or peculiar UV spectra as predicted and recently observed by the JWST in the early Universe.

M17 MIR: A Massive Star Is Forming via Episodic Mass Accretion

We analyzed the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) band 6 data for the outbursting massive protostar M17 MIR. The ALMA CO J = 2–1 data reveal a collimated and bipolar north–south outflow from M17 MIR. The blueshifted outflow exhibits four CO knots (N1 to N4) along the outflow axis, while the redshifted outflow appears as a single knot (S1). The extremely high velocity (EHV) emissions of N1 and S1 are jetlike and contain subknots along the outflow axis. Assuming the nearest EHV subknots trace the ejecta from the accretion outbursts in the past decades, a tangential ejection velocity of ∼421 km s−1 is derived for M17 MIR. Assuming the same velocity, the dynamical times of the multiple ejecta, traced by the four blueshifted CO knots, range from 20 to 364 yr. The four blueshifted CO knots imply four clustered accretion outbursts with a duration of tens of years in the past few hundred years. The intervals between the four clustered accretion outbursts are also about tens of years. These properties of the four clustered accretion outbursts are in line with the disk gravitational instability and fragmentation model. The episodic accretion history of M17 MIR traced by episodic outflow suggests that a massive star can form from a lower-mass protostar via frequent episodic accretion events triggered by disk gravitational instability and fragmentation. The first detection of the knotty outflow from an outbursting massive protostar suggests that mass ejections accompanied with accretion events could serve as an effective diagnostic tool for the episodic accretion histories of massive protostars.

AuriDESI: mock catalogues for the DESI Milky Way Survey

ABSTRACT The Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument Milky Way Survey (DESI MWS) will explore the assembly history of the Milky Way by characterizing remnants of ancient dwarf galaxy accretion events and improving constraints on the distribution of dark matter in the outer halo. We present mock catalogues that reproduce the selection criteria of MWS and the format of the final MWS data set. These catalogues can be used to test methods for quantifying the properties of stellar halo substructure and reconstructing the Milky Way’s accretion history with the MWS data, including the effects of halo-to-halo variance. The mock catalogues are based on a phase-space kernel expansion technique applied to star particles in the Auriga suite of six high-resolution lambda-cold dark matter magnetohydrodynamic zoom-in simulations. They include photometric properties (and associated errors) used in DESI target selection and the outputs of the MWS spectral analysis pipeline (radial velocity, metallicity, surface gravity, and temperature). They also include information from the underlying simulation, such as the total gravitational potential and information on the progenitors of accreted halo stars. We discuss how the subset of halo stars observable by MWS in these simulations corresponds to their true content and properties. These mock Milky Ways have rich accretion histories, resulting in a large number of substructures that span the whole stellar halo out to large distances and have substantial overlap in the space of orbital energy and angular momentum.

Applying machine learning to Galactic Archaeology: how well can we recover the origin of stars in Milky Way-like galaxies?

ABSTRACT We present several machine learning (ML) models developed to efficiently separate stars formed in situ in Milky Way-type galaxies from those that were formed externally and later accreted. These models, which include examples from artificial neural networks, decision trees, and dimensionality reduction techniques, are trained on a sample of disc-like, Milky Way-mass galaxies drawn from the artemis cosmological hydrodynamical zoom-in simulations. We find that the input parameters which provide an optimal performance for these models consist of a combination of stellar positions, kinematics, chemical abundances ([Fe/H] and [α/Fe]), and photometric properties. Models from all categories perform similarly well, with area under the precision–recall curve (PR-AUC) scores of ≃ 0.6. Beyond a galactocentric radius of 5 kpc, models retrieve $\gt 90~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ of accreted stars, with a sample purity close to 60 per cent, however the purity can be increased by adjusting the classification threshold. For one model, we also include host galaxy-specific properties in the training, to account for the variability of accretion histories of the hosts, however this does not lead to an improvement in performance. The ML models can identify accreted stars even in regions heavily dominated by the in-situ component (e.g. in the disc), and perform well on an unseen suite of simulations (the auriga simulations). The general applicability bodes well for application of such methods on observational data to identify accreted substructures in the Milky Way without the need to resort to selection cuts for minimizing the contamination from in-situ stars.

Tectonic inversion of an intracontinental rift basin: An example from the opening and closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, northern Tibetan Plateau

Suture zones located across the Tibetan region clearly demarcate the rift-and-drift and continental accretion history of the region. However, the intraplate responses to these marginal plate-tectonic events are rarely quantified. Our understanding of the Paleo-Tethyan orogenic system, which involved ocean opening and closing events to grow the central Asian continent, depends on the tectonic architecture and histories of major late Paleozoic−early Mesozoic orogenic belts. These opening and collision events were associated with coupled intracontinental deformation, which has been difficult to resolve due to subsequent overprinting deformation. The late Paleozoic−early Mesozoic Zongwulong Shan−Qinghai Nanshan belt in northern Tibet separates the Qilian and North Qaidam regions and is composed of Carboniferous−Triassic sedimentary materials and mantle-derived magmatic rocks. The tectonic setting and evolutional history of this belt provide important insight into the paleogeographic and tectonic relationships of the Paleo-Tethyan orogenic system located ∼200 km to the south. In this study, we integrated new and previous geological observations, detailed structural mapping, and zircon U-Pb geochronology data from the Zongwulong Shan−Qinghai Nanshan to document a complete tectonic inversion cycle from intraplate rifting to intracontinental shortening associated with the opening and closing of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean. Carboniferous−Permian strata in the Zongwulong Shan were deposited in an intracontinental rift basin and sourced from both the north and the south. At the end of the Early−Middle Triassic, foreland molasse strata were deposited in the southern part of the Zongwulong Shan during tectonic inversion in the western part of the tectonic belt following the onset of regional contraction deformation. The Zongwulong Shan−Qinghai Nanshan system has experienced polyphase deformation since the late Paleozoic, including: (1) early Carboniferous intracontinental extension and (2) Early−Middle Triassic tectonic inversion involving reactivation of older normal faults as thrusts and folding of pre- and synrift strata. We interpret that the Zongwulong Shan−Qinghai Nanshan initiated as a Carboniferous−Early Triassic intracontinental rift basin related to the opening of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean to the south, and it was then inverted during the Early−Middle Triassic closing of the Paleo-Tethyan Ocean. This work emphasizes that pre-Cenozoic intraplate structures related to the opening and closing of ocean basins in the Tethyan realm may be underappreciated across Tibet.

Spatially resolved spectroscopic observations of gas emission in dwarf galaxies hosting accreting black hole candidate

ABSTRACT Recent studies on dwarf galaxies reveal that some of them harbour a massive black hole (BH), which is believed to have a similar mass of the supermassive BH ‘seeds’ at early times. The origin and growth of the primitive BHs are still open questions, since these BH seeds are hardly observed at high redshifts. Therefore, MBH of dwarf galaxies can be the perfect candidates to untangle BH ‘seeds’ properties and their influence on their host galaxy evolution, since MBH may preserve their initial conditions due to its quiet merger and accretion histories. We use optical integral field unit observations, obtained with the Gemini GMOS-IFU, to study the gas emission and kinematics in four dwarf galaxies, candidates to host MBH, based on the analysis of their [Fe x] luminosities measured from SDSS spectra. The [Fe x] emission line is not detected in our GMOS in any of the galaxies, prompting speculation that its absence in our recent data may stem from a past tidal disruption event coinciding with the observation period of the SDSS data. All galaxies exhibit extended gas emissions, and the spatially resolved emission-line ratio diagnostic diagrams present values that suggest active galactic nuclei (AGN) photoionization from the [S ii]–BPT diagram. The gas velocity fields of all galaxies are indicative of disturbed rotation patterns, with no detection of gas outflows in any of the sources. Although the [S ii]–BPT diagrams indicate AGN photoionization, further confirmation through multiwavelength observations is required to validate this scenario.

The Next Generation Virgo Cluster Survey. XXXVII. Distant RR Lyrae Stars and the Milky Way Stellar Halo Out to 300 kpc

RR Lyrae stars are standard candles with characteristic photometric variability and serve as powerful tracers of Galactic structure, substructure, accretion history, and dark matter content. Here we report the discovery of distant RR Lyrae stars, including some of the most distant stars known in the Milky Way halo, with Galactocentric distances of ∼300 kpc. We use time-series u*g′i′z′ Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope/MegaCam photometry from the Next Generation Virgo Cluster Survey (NGVS). We use a template light-curve fitting method based on empirical Sloan Digital Sky Survey Stripe 82 RR Lyrae data to identify RR Lyrae candidates in the NGVS data set. We eliminate several hundred suspected quasars and identify 180 RR Lyrae candidates with heliocentric distances of ∼20–300 kpc. The halo stellar density distribution is consistent with an r −4.09±0.10 power-law radial profile over most of this distance range with no signs of a break. The distribution of ab-type RR Lyrae in a period–amplitude plot (Bailey diagram) suggests that the mean metallicity of the halo decreases outward. Compared to other recent RR Lyrae surveys, like Pan-STARRS1, the High Cadence Transient Survey, and the Dark Energy Survey, our NGVS study has better single-epoch photometric precision and a comparable number of epochs but smaller sky coverage. At large distances, our RR Lyrae sample appears to be relatively pure and complete, with well-measured periods and amplitudes. These newly discovered distant RR Lyrae stars are important additions to the few secure stellar tracers beyond 150 kpc in the Milky Way halo.

Machine learning applications in studies of the physical properties of active galactic nuclei based on photometric observations

Context. We investigate the physical nature of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) using machine learning (ML) tools. Aims. We show that the redshift, z, bolometric luminosity, LBol, central mass of the supermassive black hole (SMBH), MBH, Eddington ratio, λEdd, and AGN class (obscured or unobscured) can be reconstructed through multi-wavelength photometric observations only. Methods. We trained a random forest regressor (RFR) ML-model on 7616 spectroscopically observed AGNs from the SPIDERS-AGN survey, which had previously been cross-matched with soft X-ray observations (from ROSAT or XMM), WISE mid-infrared photometry, and optical photometry from SDSS ugriz filters. We built a catalog of 21 050 AGNs that were subsequently reconstructed with the trained RFR; for 9687 sources, we found archival redshift measurements. All AGNs were classified as either type 1 or type 2 using a random forest classifier (RFC) algorithm on a subset of known sources. All known photometric measurement uncertainties were incorporated via a simulation-based approach. Results. We present the reconstructed catalog of 21 050 AGNs with redshifts ranging from 0 &lt; z &lt; 2.5. We determined z estimations for 11 363 new sources, with both accuracy and outlier rates within 2%. The distinction between type 1 or type 2 AGNs could be identified with respective efficiencies of 94% and 89%. The estimated obscuration level, a proxy for AGN classification, of all sources is given in the dataset. The LBol, MBH, and λEdd values are given for 21 050 new sources with their estimated error. These results have been made publicly available. Conclusions. The release of this catalog will advance AGN studies by presenting key parameters of the accretion history of 6 dex in luminosity over a wide range of z. Similar applications of ML techniques using photometric data only will be essential in the future, with large datasets from eROSITA, JSWT, and the VRO poised to be released in the next decade.

Formation of the four terrestrial planets in the Jupiter–Saturn chaotic excitation scenario: fundamental properties and water delivery

The Jupiter–Saturn chaotic excitation (JSCE) scenario proposes that the protoplanetary disk was dynamically excited and depleted beyond ∼1–1.5 au in a few Myr, offering a new and plausible explanation for several observed properties of the inner solar system. Here, we expanded our previous work by conducting a comprehensive analysis of 37 optimal terrestrial planet systems obtained in the context of the JSCE scenario. Each optimal system harbored exactly four terrestrial planets analogs to Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. We further investigated water delivery, feeding zones, and accretion history for the planet analogs, which allowed us to better constrain the water distribution in the disk. The main findings of this work are as follows: 1) the formation of four terrestrial planets with orbits and masses similar to those observed in our solar system in most of our sample, as evidenced by the dynamically colder and hotter orbits of Venus–Earth and Mercury–Mars analogs, and the high success rates of similar mutual orbital separations (∼40–85%) and mass ratios of the planets (∼70–90%) among the 37 systems; and 2) water was delivered to all terrestrial planets during their formation through the accretion of water-bearing disk objects from beyond ∼1–1.5 au. The achievement of Earth’s estimated bulk water content required the disk to contain sufficient water mass distributed within those objects initially. This requirement implies that Mercury, Venus, and Mars acquired water similar to the amount on Earth during their formation. Several of our planet analogs also matched additional constraints, such as the timing of Moon formation by a giant impact, Earth’s late accretion mass and composition, and Mars’s formation timescale.