Accipiter Nisus Research Articles

Wing Kinematics of Long Eared Owl and Sparrow Hawk in Flapping Flight

Many species of owl has ability of fly silently. To explore the mechanism of owl’s silent flight, the kinematic character of the silent flight owl have been studied preliminarily on 3D motion capture technology. The paper has compared the flight motion between the long eared owl(Asio otus) and sparrow hawk(Accipiter nisus). According to the kinematic data, the flight trajectory, flapping frequency, flapping cycle, wrist angle, upstroke and downstroke percentage of cycle were computed and analyzed. The results show that wing tip, wrist and primary feather P10 of long eared owl and the eagle owl have obvious trajectory in flapping flight. Especially the wing tip trajectory in upstroke shows double“8”type. However, the wing tip trajectory in upstroke of sparrow hawk shows single“8”type. The wrist angle of silent owl keeps in downstroke and decreases in upstroke. But the wrist angle of sparrow hawk has increased first and then kept in downstroke, and the angle has begun decrease in upstroke. The above results show the difference of wing kinematics between silent owl and sparrow hawk, and will be useful for bionic design and silent fly technology.

Cuckoos in raptors' clothing: barred plumage illuminates a fundamental principle of Batesian mimicry

A fundamental principle of Batesian mimicry is that it pays to look like a local harmful species that is recognizable to other local species (receivers). Mimicking an allopatric species confers no benefit, as it is not recognizable to local species. It is thought that the common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, is a Batesian mimic of the Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus, predominantly via its barred plumage, which facilitates access to host nests to deposit eggs. Barring is widespread in five genera of Old World cuckoos, unlike nonparasitic cuckoos, and evolved after the evolution of parasitism. Although barred plumage is predominant in parasitic cuckoos, it is unclear whether it may have a widespread function in cuckoo–hawk mimicry. If widespread, there should be a visual similarity between all five genera of Old World parasitic cuckoos and sympatric raptors. In addition, given that it pays to look like a local harmful species, sympatry should predict the degree of similarity. We compared barred plumage from all five genera of parasitic Old World cuckoos and up to eight sympatric raptors using digital image analysis. Cuckoos predominantly matched most raptors for at least one pattern attribute. In addition, three out of five cuckoos closely resembled a sympatric raptor for all barred pattern attributes examined, and potential model species were not confined to sparrowhawks. Habitat did not appear to influence plumage pattern similarity in most species studied. Finally, the barred plumage of sympatric species was more similar in appearance than those in allopatry. Together this demonstrates that cuckoos look like a local harmful species, which is congruous with Batesian mimicry.

Rarely parasitized and unparasitized species mob and alarm call to cuckoos: implications for sparrowhawk mimicry by brood parasitic cuckoos

Abstract Recent experiments support the long-standing hypothesis that Common Cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) are mimics of Eurasian Sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus). Additional experiments further suggest that mimicry benefits the cuckoos by reducing the intensity of mobbing they suffer near host nests, at least in some host populations, potentially increasing their access to the hosts' nests. We observed two species of birds—one very rarely parasitized and the other never parasitized by cuckoos—responding to a cuckoo as they would a bird of prey. On the island of Oland, Sweden, we observed two instances of a gray phase cuckoo being mobbed by a group of Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica) during the non-breeding season. These mobbing observations cannot be explained as a consequence of selection in the context of brood parasitism, because swallows are extremely rare cuckoo hosts and should not show co-evolutionary responses to parasitism. Instead, the swallows appear to have mistaken the cuckoos for Eurasian Sparrowh...

The contribution of an avian top predator to selection in prey species

Natural selection can vary in magnitude, form and direction, yet the causes of selection, and of variation in selection, are poorly understood. We quantified the effect of a key predator (Eurasian sparrowhawks) on selection on fledging body mass in two bird species (blue tits and great tits). By partitioning selection into within- and between-brood components, we were able to separate individual from brood-level effects of fledging mass on predation probability and recruitment. In blue tits, selection on fledging mass by sparrowhawk predation was nonsignificant and could not explain selection to recruitment. In contrast, in great tits, sparrowhawk predation selected for increased fledging mass at the individual level and could explain 73% of individual-level selection on fledging mass to recruitment. Moreover, in great tits, individual-level selection on fledging mass was significantly stronger in years in which sparrowhawks were present compared to years when sparrowhawks were absent. Selection at the brood level was independent of sparrowhawk presence. These results provide compelling evidence that sparrowhawk predation acts as an important causal agent of selection on fledging mass in great tits but not in blue tits. Variation in predation pressure can therefore account for variation in selection, but specific patterns may not be easily generalized across species.

Ultraviolet sensitivity and colour vision in raptor foraging

Raptors have excellent vision, yet it is unclear how they use colour information. It has been suggested that raptors use ultraviolet (UV) reflections from vole urine to find good hunting grounds. In contrast, UV plumage colours in songbirds such as blue tits are assumed to be 'hidden' communication signals, inconspicuous to raptors. This ambiguity results from a lack of knowledge about raptor ocular media transmittance, which sets the limit for UV sensitivity. We measured ocular media transmittance in common buzzards (Buteo buteo), sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), red kites (Milvus milvus) and kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) so that, for the first time, raptor UV sensitivity can be fully described. With this information, and new measurements of vole urine reflectance, we show that (i) vole urine is unlikely to provide a reliable visual signal to hunting raptors and (ii) blue tit plumage colours are more contrasting to blue tits than to sparrowhawks because of UV reflectance. However, as the difference between blue tit and sparrowhawk vision is subtle, we suggest that behavioural data are needed to fully resolve this issue. UV cues are of little or no importance to raptors in both vole and songbird interactions and the role of colour vision in raptor foraging remains unclear.

Monitoring agricultural rodenticide use and secondary exposure of raptors in Scotland

Despite the documented risk of secondary poisoning to non-target species by anticoagulant rodenticides there is no statutory post-approval monitoring of their use in the UK. This paper presents results from two Scottish monitoring schemes for the period 2000-2010; recording rodenticide use on arable farms and the presence of residues in raptor carcasses. More than three quarters of arable farms used anticoagulant rodenticides; predominately the second generation compounds difenacoum and bromadiolone. There was widespread exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides in liver tissues of the raptor species tested and the residues encountered generally reflected agricultural use patterns. As found in other studies, Red Kites (Milvus milvus) appeared to be particularly vulnerable to rodenticide exposure, 70 % of those sampled (n = 114) contained residues and 10 % died as a result of rodenticide ingestion. More unexpectedly, sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), which prey almost exclusively on birds, had similar exposure rates to species which prey on rodents. Although, with the exception of kites, confirmed mortality from rodenticides was low, the widespread exposure recorded is concerning. Particularly when coupled with a lack of data about the sub-lethal effects of these compounds. This raises questions regarding whether statutory monitoring of use is needed; both to address whether there are deficiencies in compliance with approval conditions or whether the recommended risk management procedures are themselves adequate to protect non-target wildlife.

Flight of the mystery birds

Flight of the mystery birds

Key factors affecting liver PBDE concentrations in sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus)

High PBDE concentrations have been detected in the eggs of the sexually dimorphic Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) but little is known about contamination levels in adult birds and how this may vary with age and sex. We characterised liver PBDE concentrations in 59 sparrowhawks that had died in central Britain between 1998 and 2009 and determined how concentrations varied with sex, age, body condition and breeding status. Five BDE congeners (99 > 153 > 47 > 100 > 154) predominated and ΣPBDE concentrations were 10–15 fold and 2–3 fold higher in starved than non-starved adult and juvenile sparrowhawks, respectively. This was likely due to a combination of remobilisation of residues from other tissues and liver wastage. Liver ΣPBDE concentrations did not vary with sex but were greater in adults than juveniles, suggestive of accumulation with age. Overall, liver ΣPBDE concentrations ranged from 43.4 to 68,040 ng/g lipid weight, amongst the highest concentrations reported in birds anywhere.

Dechlorane Plus flame retardant in terrestrial raptors from northern China

While a number of studies have addressed the environmental presence and behavior of the Dechlorane Plus (DP) flame retardant, there is still a dearth of information in terrestrial ecosystems. The present study revealed that median ∑DP (including anti- and syn-DP isomers) concentrations ranged from 10 to 810 ng/g lipid weight in muscle and liver tissues of six terrestrial raptor species collected in 2004–2006 from Beijing, China. Some concentrations rival the greatest DP burdens ever reported in global wildlife. Significant, positive correlations were observed between fanti (concentration ratio of anti-isomer to ∑DP) and ∑DP concentrations in the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) tissues. These results suggested that the DP burdens could be substantially driven by the accumulation of the anti-isomer in terrestrial birds. The tissue-specific accumulation of DP further suggested that factors (e.g., hepatic binding enzymes) other than lipid solubility could be important in determining tissue deposition of DP.

Color plumage polymorphism and predator mimicry in brood parasites

BackgroundPlumage polymorphism may evolve during coevolution between brood parasites and their hosts if rare morph(s), by contravening host search image, evade host recognition systems better than common variant(s). Females of the parasitic common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) are a classic example of discrete color polymorphism: gray females supposedly mimic the sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), while rufous females are believed to mimic the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). Despite many studies on host responses to adult cuckoos comprehensive tests of the “hawk mimicry” and “kestrel mimicry” hypotheses are lacking so far.ResultsWe tested these hypotheses by examining host responses to stuffed dummies of the sparrowhawk, kestrel, cuckoo and the innocuous turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) as a control at the nest. Our experimental data from an aggressive cuckoo host, the great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus), showed low effectiveness of cuckoo-predator mimicry against more aggressive hosts regardless of the type of model and the degree of perfection of the mimic. Specifically, warblers discriminated gray cuckoos from sparrowhawks but did not discriminate rufous cuckoos from kestrels. However, both gray and rufous cuckoos were attacked vigorously and much more than control doves. The ratio of aggression to gray vs. rufous cuckoo was very similar to the ratio between frequencies of gray vs. rufous cuckoo morphs in our study population.ConclusionsOverall, our data combined with previous results from other localities suggest polymorphism dynamics are not strongly affected by local predator model frequencies. Instead, hosts responses and discrimination abilities are proportional, other things being equal, to the frequency with which hosts encounter various cuckoo morphs near their nests. This suggests that female cuckoo polymorphism is a counter-adaptation to thwart a specific host adaptation, namely an ability to not be fooled by predator mimicry. We hypothesize the dangerousness of a particular model predator (sparrowhawks are more dangerous to adult birds than kestrels) may be another important factor responsible for better discrimination between the gray cuckoo and its model rather than between the rufous cuckoo and its model. We also provide a review of relevant existing literature, detailed discussion of plumage polymorphism in cuckoos, methodological recommendations and new ideas for future work.

Long-Term Trends in PBDEs in Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) Eggs Indicate Sustained Contamination of UK Terrestrial Ecosystems

PBDE contamination in terrestrial biota is poorly characterized, and robust data on temporal trends are scarce. We measured temporal (1985-2007) and spatial trends in PBDE contamination in the eggs of the sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), a sentinel for the terrestrial environment. Five BDEs were the most abundant (BDE 99 > 47 > 153 > 100 > 154). Their concentrations, and that of the sum PBDEs (ΣPBDE), increased from the mid-1980s, peaking in the midlate 1990s at levels that were sustained until the end of the study. This and the predominance of BDE99 contrast with patterns in piscivorous species and suggest sparrowhawks, and perhaps terrestrial species more widely, may be relatively poor metabolizers of penta-BDEs. BDE 196, 197, 201, and 203 concentrations increased linearly through the study, indicating increasing contamination possibly from the presence of these congeners in, and/or debromination of, deca-BDE formulations. Variation in egg ΣPBDE concentration was not explained by % urban land cover, human population density or % of arable land in proximity to the nest site, or by land use. Overall, egg ΣPBDE concentrations (34-2281 ng/g wet weight) were some of the highest reported in birds from Europe. We found no relationship between ΣPBDE concentrations and eggshell thickness.

Molecular Identification of Avian Haemosporidia in Wild Birds and Mosquitoes on Tsushima Island, Japan

We investigated for the first time the prevalence of avian haemosporidia of genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon among birds and mosquitoes on Tsushima Island of Japan, which is located between Japan and the Korean Peninsula. Of 55 wild birds belonging to 33 species, 16 (29.1%) tested positive for haemosporidia as follows: Plasmodium spp. (11/55; 20.0%); Haemoproteus spp. (2/55; 3.6%); and Leucocytozoon spp. (3/55; 5.5%). A genetic lineage isolated from the Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) was identical to that of the known avian malaria parasite P. circumflexum. Several genetic lineages were identical or closely related to the parasite lineages that were previously detected in birds and mosquitoes in Japan and Korea. Another single identical genetic lineage was also detected in both migratory and resident birds. A total of 753 mosquitoes from 12 species were collected; and one fully fed Aedes albopictus was positive for avian Plasmodium(1/753; 0.13%) which is identical to a genetic lineage detected in both mosquitoes in Japan and birds in Korea. Blood-meal identifications of blood-fed mosquitoes showed direct contact between the mosquitoes and 4 species of mammals including humans, cattle, rodents and the endangered Tsushima leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis euptilura). Migratory birds use Tsushima Island as a site for wintering, breeding and resting, and our results suggest the transmission of avian haematozoa between resident and migratory birds during their stay on Tsushima Island.

Monitoring raptors post-breeding migration on the Elba island, Arcipelago Toscano; years 2005-2006

Raptors post-reproductive migration was monitored over a two year period (2005-2006) in Arcipelago Toscano. This paper is a first attempt to analyze the migration patterns of the most abundant species (Circus aeruginosus, Pernis apivorus and Accipiter nisus), trying to define their timing and peak passage period.

Red-backed Shrikes (Lanius collurio) adjust the mobbing intensity, but not mobbing frequency, by assessing the potential threat to themselves from different predators

We studied the ability of Red-backed Shrikes to adjust their nest defence to the potential threat posed to defending adults and their nests. We presented mounts of two raptor spe-cies which prey on adult birds (Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Common Kestrel; differing in the proportion of adult passerines in their diets), and two species of nest predators (Common Magpie, Eurasian Jay; differing in the proportion of bird eggs and nestlings in their diets). A mounted Feral Pigeon was used as a control. Shrikes regularly mobbed the Sparrow-hawk, Kestrel and Jay, but not Magpie or Pigeon. The mobbing frequency, in terms of the number of mobbing events per 20 min, did not differ among the three regularly-mobbed predators. If shrikes tried to chase the predator away, they did not adjust the mobbing fre-quency to the level of potential threat to the nest. The proportion of mobbing events result-ing in physical contact (mobbing intensity) declined from the most mobbed species, Jay to the Kestrel, to the Sparrowhawk, which was considered most dangerous to adult shirkes. The Red-backed Shrikes appeared to adjusted their mobbing intensity by assessing the potential threat to themselves. Our results show the importance of a differentiation be-tween mobbing intensity and mobbing frequency in the study of nest-defence behaviour.

To compensate or not to compensate: testing the negotiation model in the context of nest defense

Theory of parental care in biparental species predicts that a decrease in 1 mate’s parental effort should trigger a partial increase of care by the other mate. Previous studies investigating compensatory behavior used nestling provisioning as the measure of parental effort. However, nest defense is also a costly component of parental care because defenders risk injury or death caused by predators. Here for the first time, we test the compensation hypothesis in the context of nest defense. We experimentally widowed (by temporarily removing the other mate) female or male great reed warblers Acrocephalus arundinaceus and faced them with a predator near the nest (the stuffed Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus). Female responses were independent of their partner’s presence or absence. In contrast, lone males did not compensate for the absence of their mates; they even behaved more aggressively when their partner was present, contradicting the partial compensation hypothesis. We discuss potential determinants of between-species variation in sex-specific compensatory behavior. We predict that a lack of compensation might be found in species with different renesting and remating potentials between males and females, for example, where males are unwilling/unable to raise the brood when unassisted by females and therefore, avoid an investment that cannot increase their fitness.

Mortality of Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix nests in Welsh Oakwoods: predation rates and the identification of nest predators using miniature nest cameras

Capsule Predation was the main cause of nest failure, but predation rates have remained unchanged since the 1980s. Eurasian Jays Garrullus glandarius were the most common predator. Aims To quantify, and compare, nest predation rates for 1982–84 and 2009–11, and to identify predators of Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix nests in Welsh oakwoods. Methods During 2009–11, 167 Wood Warbler nests were monitored and purpose-built miniature nest cameras deployed at 73 of them. Nest predation rates were compared with 67 nests monitored during 1982–84. Results Of 167 nests monitored from 2009 to 2011, 62 failed due to predation (32/73 camera nests, 30/94 non-camera nests), giving an overall Daily Survival Rate (DSR ± se) of 0.979 ± 0.003. This was not significantly different from the rate during 1982–84 (0.967 ± 0.006). In 2009–11, the DSR of nests declined temporally during the season at both the egg and chick stages. For chick stage nests, DSR varied annually and nonlinearly with age of nestlings. There was no evidence for an effect of cameras at either stage. Of 32 camera nests lost to predation, the predator was identified from 28, resulting in 30 predators being identified. There was one case of multiple predators at a single nest. The majority of nest predation was carried out by birds (28/30), predominantly Eurasian Jays (18/28), but also Common Buzzards Buteo buteo (5/28), Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major (3/28) and Eurasian Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus (2/28). There was one predation by both a Eurasian Badger Meles meles and a Red Fox Vulpes vulpes. There were no records of Grey Squirrels Sciurus carolinensis depredating nests. Conclusions Nest predation rates were similar in both periods, suggesting that increased rates of nest predation have not been driving the decline of the Wood Warbler population in Wales. Deployment of nest cameras did not affect nest survival rates and were successful in identifying nest predators, the majority of which were avian, especially Eurasian Jays. Knowledge of the identity of nest predators can aid the development of conservation measures.

Spatial consistency in susceptibility of prey species to predation by two Accipiter hawks

Predators impose strong selection on their prey, regulate prey populations and engage in coevolutionary interactions with their prey. The intensity of selection and the strength of coevolutionary interactions will depend on how stringent predators are in their choice of prey. We estimated susceptibility of different species of birds to predation by two common raptors, the northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis and the Eurasian sparrowhawk A. nisus, in an agricultural landscape in Denmark and boreal forests in Finland. We estimated susceptibility to predation as the deviation of the log10‐transformed observed frequency of prey of different species from the log10‐transformed expectation based on population density during the breeding season. We found a high degree of consistency in susceptibility to predation by the goshawk in two areas in Finland. More importantly, there was significant consistency in susceptibility to predation between Denmark and Finland, albeit the degree of consistency in the goshawk was higher than in the sparrowhawk. There was considerable overlap in susceptibility to predation between goshawk and sparrowhawk in Denmark, but not in Finland, implying differences in intensity of interspecific competition as reflected by a much higher extent of goshawk predation on sparrowhawks in Denmark than in Finland. Our findings suggest that hawks impose similar selection pressures on their prey populations, and that the degree of consistency has implications for intensity of interspecific killing.

Escape behaviour of birds provides evidence of predation being involved in urbanization

Altered predation risk in urban environments may contribute to animals becoming successfully urbanized by individuals from rural habitats. Escape behaviour has evolved to allow an individual to escape once captured by a predator. We tested whether altered predation risk in urban environments is associated with colonization of such habitats by comparing escape behaviour of 1132 individual birds belonging to 15 species from nearby rural and urban populations when captured by a human. Raptors (of which the Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus, was one of the most common species) were more common in rural than in urban habitats, whereas cats, Felis catus, showed the opposite pattern. There were consistent differences in escape behaviour between habitats, showing divergence in behaviour from the ancestral rural state. Urban birds wriggled less, showed higher tonic immobility, more often lost feathers, were less aggressive by biting less often, and emitted fear screams and alarm calls more often than rural birds. Furthermore, differences in escape behaviour between habitats were related to susceptibility to predation by sparrowhawks, as expected if differences in behaviour were due to differences in predation risk. Finally, an analysis of differences in escape behaviour between rural and urban birds revealed a significant relationship with time since urbanization, suggesting that escape behaviour has changed in urban environments over time. These findings suggest that release from predation and change in predator community associated with urbanization has altered the antipredator behaviour of birds colonizing towns and cities.

Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) as Predator of Eurasian Blackbird (Turdus merula) Nests

Eurasian Sparrowhawk (A<scp>ccipiter nisus</scp>) as Predator of Eurasian Blackbird (T<scp>urdus merula</scp>) Nests

Urban areas as refuges from predators and flight distance of prey

Large animals have longer flight distances when approached by a potential predator than small animals, and predators therefore have longer flight distances than their prey. The ubiquitous presence of humans in urban areas selects for differential invasion by animals with short flight distances, and adaptation to urban environments results in further reductions in flight distance. Because prey are better able to cope with the proximity of humans than predators due to differences in flight distance, urban areas may act as refuges. Predators on average have a flight distance that is 8 times larger than that of their prey. In urban areas, humans were present within a distance of 54 m (the mean flight distance of raptor species) 16% of the time and 4% of the time within a distance of 7 m (the mean flight distance of prey species). In contrast, humans were present 1.2% of the time within a distance of 54 m but only 0.1% of the time within a distance of 7 m in rural habitats. Therefore, prey gained a 10-fold increase in predator refuge in urban compared with rural habitats. The reduction in flight distance between the ancestral rural and the current urban habitats decreased with the difference in flight distance between raptors and that of prey. The difference in flight distance between predators and that of prey increased with increasing preference of prey by sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus relative to their abundance, providing evidence of a selective advantage for prey. These results suggest that birds that are prey of raptors enjoy a selective advantage from association with humans.