Access Pricing Research Articles

The price of dialysis access: Implications of access type and patient-centric approaches to cost.

This study explores out-of-pocket (OOP) costs for patients and provider reimbursement for dialysis access creation. It aims to illustrate the financial characteristics of four dialysis access modalities to consider in decision-making for clinicians, patients, and payers. Retrospective data from the Merative™ MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters Databases from 2017 to 2022 was analyzed for patients who received an arteriovenous fistula (AVF), arteriovenous graft (AVG), peritoneal dialysis catheter (PDC), or percutaneous AVF (pAVF). ANOVA and Tukey HSD were used to assess cost differences among the four access modalities overall and in the context of insurance type and service site. Database extraction resulted in 20,863 unique procedures, comprising of 15,043 AVF, 4759 AVG, 896 PDC, and 165 pAVF. Mean age was 59.2 years (±14.19) and 60.53% of the cohort was male. EPO/PPO plans were the most represented (53.06%) and most procedures were performed in the hospital outpatient department (91.99%). There were significant differences found among OOP cost and reimbursement with respect to procedure type, insurance type, and service site. Overall, pAVF had both the highest cost and reimbursement. Patient OOP costs and provider reimbursement differ significantly based on procedure, insurance type, and service site. While pAVF creation is recognized with high reimbursements due to its complexity and the advanced technology required, it also has the highest OOP costs for patients. To help facilitate adoption of new technologies like pAVF, advocacy efforts should focus on encouraging payers to lower the OOP financial barriers for patients to receive these newer but costlier procedures.

Big Data Analytics in Gaza's Higher Education: Identifying and Addressing Key Implementation Barriers

This research provides an in-depth investigation into the adoption of Big Data Analytics (BDA) technology in higher education institutions (HEIs) in the Gaza Strip, along with a detailed analysis of the barriers to its implementation. Using a quantitative research methodology, data was collected from 305 participants. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to identify key barriers to BDA, including challenges related to infrastructure, security, resources, knowledge, and data characteristics. The study found that financial constraints, access pricing and conditions, significant investment costs, lack of BDA expertise, operational expenses, experience sharing, and resource development are the main barriers to BDA adoption. Additionally, the study shows that 65.3% of HEIs are using BDA technology, with a BDA readiness score of 66.68%. Regression analysis indicates that barriers related to security, finances, data characteristics, skills, and infrastructure negatively impact BDA practice and readiness. Based on these findings, proactive measures are recommended to address these barriers in the Gaza Strip. These measures include developing government initiatives, upgrading IT infrastructure, enhancing BDA skills, and promoting BDA technology awareness. The research advocates for further exploration of the specific challenges and opportunities faced by local universities and a deeper investigation into the potential benefits of BDA adoption. Overcoming these obstacles and fostering BDA integration could enhance data analysis capabilities, contributing to the growth and competitive strength of the Gaza Strip.

Geospatial fish consumption patterns and paradigmsin Odisha State, India

The current study investigated the geographic distribution and characteristics of fish consumption in Odisha State, India. The study was conducted across various locations, comprising urban coastal (Puri), rural coastal (Balasore), urban non-coastal (Cuttack) andrural non-coastal (Mayurbhanj) districts in the state. A total of 1440 respondents were selected for assessing the fish consumption patterns across theses diverse locations. According to the consumer profile, 82% of respondents were between the age of 20 and50, with 24% having a college degree. More than 90% of the respondents reported that they consume fish regularly. The results indicated that increased fish availability (62%), accessibility (52%), and affordability (48%) contributed to a rise in fish consumption over time. Over all, distance to the fish access points ranged between 1 to 2 . Catla was the most preferred fish species among consumers, followed by Rohu and other carps. Several barriers to increasing fish consumption were identified based on the perceptions of the respondents, such as erratic availability, lack of preference for fresh fish, wide price variations, limited access and high price. The data were analysed using a range of statistical and econometric methods, including conjoint analysis, preference assessment index and discriminant analysis. Keywords: Coastal, Conjoint analysis, Discriminant analysis, Fish consumption, Non-coastal, Preference assessment index

Institutions' dynamics and homeownership aspirations in Ethiopia

The desire to own a home is a common aspiration amongst many. The role of institutions either by enabling or constraining the achievement of the aspirations is very crucial. Unfortunately, the study investigating the impact of these institutional factors on homeownership aspirations was not adequately adequate. Thus, the researchers motivated to analyze the role of institutions for homeownership aspirations. Researchers used qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods to explore the relationship between mortgage access, housing market prices, and homeownership in Sheger City, Ethiopia. The study involved 384 participants, and the results were analyzed using descriptive statistics and multinomial regression. The findings suggest that mortgage access and housing prices play a significant role in shaping homeownership aspirations. However, it was apparent that banks prioritize the wealthy, resulting in the housing market neglecting the needs of low-income individuals and families, leading to unaffordable housing options and findings revealed institutions’ dynamics are accompanied by dysfunctions. The multinomial regression analysis revealed that the likelihood of owning a home over renting one increases when housing becomes more affordable which shows market dysfunctions affect aspirations to homeownership. Obtaining a mortgage is also critical, as it significantly improves the chances of aspiring to own a home. The authors suggest that the Municipality reconsider the affordability of mortgage services and housing prices to ensure that homeownership opportunities are distributed fairly.

A Conceptual Model of Rural Tourism in Bali to Build Up Global Competitiveness

Rural tourism, in the form of small-scale, locally owned tourism businesses, has become a priority that must be supported by the government to be more beneficial for the local community. The objective of this study was to develop a conceptual model of rural tourism in order to make rural tourism in Bali more competitive globally. This research was conducted in Bali during April–June 2020 by following a systems thinking approach. The methodology employed was a soft systems methodology and utilized interpretive structural modeling (ISM). Twenty persons were chosen purposively as key informants (experts). Data collection was carried out through focus group discussions (FGDs) and questionnaires. The results indicated that the goals of sustainable rural tourism are to improve local community welfare, to conserve the environment, and to preserve culture and heritage. Managing rural tourism requires efforts in destination quality, service excellence, hospitality, reasonable pricing, and ease of access. Finally, this paper proposes methods to support sustainable rural tourism in Bali.

Pursuing circular economics through the integrated crop-livestock systems: An integrative review on practices, strategies and challenges post Green Revolution in Indonesia

The Green Revolution, driven by advanced technology, substantially increased food production in Asian developing countries, including Indonesia. Nevertheless, it also resulted in environmental consequences, notably soil fertility degradation, threatening future agricultural productivity. As an alternative approach, the Integrated Crops-Livestock System (ICLS) holds promise for simultaneously enhancing crop and livestock yields while upholding environmental sustainability. This article investigates the significance of ICLS as a sustainable agricultural solution in the context of circular economics post Green Revolution era in Indonesia. This study employs an integrative literature review, encompassing secondary data analysis, research findings, and publications, to underscore the potential of ICLS in Indonesia and beyond. Despite its potential, the limited adoption of ICLS among Indonesian farmers is attributed to factors such as inadequate knowledge and skills, insufficient policy support, and inadequate dissemination and promotion efforts. To promote widespread ICLS implementation, robust dissemination strategies are imperative, encompassing technical guidance, counseling, training, and on-farm demonstrations. In addition, policy support, including accessible credit and price incentives, is essential to incentivize farmers to embrace ICLS practices. This article underscores the relevance of circular economics within the context of integrated farming and provides insights for policymakers and stakeholders aiming to promote sustainable agriculture in Indonesia's post Green Revolution era.

Energy use, energy access, and oil price fluctuations as new determinants of environmental quality in APEC countries

Energy security has moved to the forefront of international policy agendas and boosted efforts to deploy clean energy technologies. In the past few years, clean energy investment has accelerated at a faster rate than investment in fossil fuels, contributing to the emergence of peak oil demand. This study examines the impact of energy use, energy access, and oil price fluctuations on environmental quality in APEC countries between 1991 and 2020 using shadow economies and agricultural lands as moderating variables. The results of the Arellano-bond dynamic panel data estimation show that energy use, energy access, agricultural land, and a shady economy are positively related to CO2 emissions, while oil price fluctuations are negatively associated with CO2 emissions in APEC nations. There is a positive correlation between energy use and carbon dioxide emissions among APEC nations. As energy use increases, CO2 emissions increase as well. APEC nations have a positive relationship between energy access and carbon dioxide emissions. Policymakers in APEC countries must understand the implications of rising energy consumption and CO2 emissions. To mitigate negative environmental consequences, develop sustainable energy sources, and promote economic growth, energy efficiency measures can help to minimize energy consumption and reduce CO2 emissions. APEC countries are encouraged to develop carbon pricing mechanisms to encourage companies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through cap and trade systems or carbon taxes. The implementation of carbon pricing mechanisms encourages businesses to switch to cleaner, renewable energy sources as a result of putting a price on carbon emissions.

Impact of access regulation on investment reconsidered

In regulated industries like electricity, gas, and telecommunications, regulators often require vertically integrated incumbents to share their infrastructure with competitors in a related market. This paper demonstrates that such access regulation may strengthen an incumbent's incentive to invest in infrastructure even if the regulated access price of an input is set at its marginal cost. Specifically, we reconsider Kotakorpi's (2006) model under an alternative circumstance where downstream rivals would be foreclosed from the market without regulation. We find that the access regulation increases investment and improves social welfare under certain conditions. Our main conclusion is robust to an alternative way of modeling consumers' valuation of products. Furthermore, raising the access price above the marginal cost expands the parameters for which the regulation increases investment. Our analysis suggests that access regulation alone does not reduce an incumbent's investment incentive.

Importance of the Food Issue in Algeria's Economic Policy

The issue of food security has been taken very seriously by the public authorities since the country's independence in 1962. This major social and political concern was manifested in the various political speeches of leaders and in the national charter which proclaims this universal right of the population to healthy, varied, sustainable and accessible food for all. To achieve this, a decisive role was given to the national agricultural sector to ensure the supply of basic foodstuffs to the population at accessible prices, particularly for disadvantaged social groups. Thus, agricultural and agri-food policies were designed and implemented to achieve the objective of food security and preserve national sovereignty. In this article, we will try to provide some answers on the main axes of this food policy adopted by the State. First, we briefly present the characteristics of the consumption model of Algerians, then, we expose the importance of the means and actions implemented to achieve these objectives through in particular the recommended subsidy and import policies for basic foodstuffs. by the state. Finally and thanks to the statistical data available, we deduce some aspects of the limits and constraints of this food policy before suggesting some recommendations to strengthen its reliability in the face of the country's economic constraints.

Usability of Health Care Price Transparency Data in the United States: Mixed Methods Study.

Increasing health care expenditure in the United States has put policy makers under enormous pressure to find ways to curtail costs. Starting January 1, 2021, hospitals operating in the United States were mandated to publish transparent, accessible pricing information online about the items and services in a consumer-friendly format within comprehensive machine-readable files on their websites. The aims of this study are to analyze the available files on hospitals' websites, answering the question-is price transparency (PT) information as provided usable for patients or for machines?-and to provide a solution. We analyzed 39 main hospitals in Florida that have published machine-readable files on their website, including commercial carriers. We created an Excel (Microsoft) file that included those 39 hospitals along with the 4 most popular services-Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) 45380, 29827, and 70553 and Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG) 807-for the 4 most popular commercial carriers (Health Maintenance Organization [HMO] or Preferred Provider Organization [PPO] plans)-Aetna, Florida Blue, Cigna, and UnitedHealthcare. We conducted an A/B test using 67 MTurkers (randomly selected from US residents), investigating the level of awareness about PT legislation and the usability of available files. We also suggested format standardization, such as master field names using schema integration, to make machine-readable files consistent and usable for machines. The poor usability and inconsistent formats of the current PT information yielded no evidence of its usefulness for patients or its quality for machines. This indicates that the information does not meet the requirements for being consumer-friendly or machine readable as mandated by legislation. Based on the responses to the first part of the experiment (PT awareness), it was evident that participants need to be made aware of the PT legislation. However, they believe it is important to know the service price before receiving it. Based on the responses to the second part of the experiment (human usability of PT information), the average number of correct responses was not equal between the 2 groups, that is, the treatment group (mean 1.23, SD 1.30) found more correct answers than the control group (mean 2.76, SD 0.58; t65=6.46; P<.001; d=1.52). Consistent machine-readable files across all health systems facilitate the development of tools for estimating customer out-of-pocket costs, aligning with the PT rule's main objective-providing patients with valuable information and reducing health care expenditures.

Optimal integration decision of industrial internet platform for third-party components in two-sided networks

PurposeWith the development of digitalization and interconnection, there is a growing need for enterprise customers to ensure the compatibility of the third-party components they are using in the manufacturing process, thus raising the integration requirements for the Industrial Internet platform and its third-party developers. Therefore, our study investigates the optimal integration decision of the Industrial Internet platform while considering its access price, the integration cost, and the net utility derived by enterprise customers from the third-party components.Design/methodology/approachWe model a two-sided Industrial Internet platform that connects customers on the demand side to the developers on the supply side. We then explore the integration decision of the Industrial Internet platform and its important factors by solving the optimal profit function.FindingsFirst, despite the high integration cost of third-party developers, the platform still chooses to integrate when enterprise customers derive high utility from the third-party components. Second, due to the compatibility effect, charging the enterprise customers a higher price may reduce the platform profits when these customers derive low utility from the third-party components. Third, the platform profits will increase along with the integration cost of third-party developers when it is low in the case where enterprise customers derive low utility from third-party components.Originality/valueOur findings offer insightful takeaways for the Industrial Internet platform when making integration decisions.

Analysis of eco-friendly preference and consumer satisfaction on the attributes of rice in Toboali Bangka Selatan

Rice serves as the main dietary staple for most Indonesians. The preference of environmentally conscious consumers reflects their liking or disliking of the different types of rice available. Satisfaction, in this context, refers to consumers' evaluations of their expectations when purchasing and consuming rice. It involves comparing their level of satisfaction with the actual performance of the rice after consumption. The study aims to analyze the eco-friendly preference and consumer satisfaction with the attributes of rice in Toboali Bangka Selatan. Convenience sampling was applied to collect the respondents of the study. Convenience Sampling was the technique where the sampling was conducted on consumers who were currently at home and willing to fill out the provided questionnaire. Surveys conducted through direct personal interactionTop of Form, observation, and focus group discussion were employed as the data collection technique. Importance-performance analysis (IPA) and customer satisfaction index (CSI) were used in processing the data. The study revealed that the eco-friendly preference and the quality of the eco-friendly rice had a positive impact on total consumer satisfaction which was fulfilled by the attributes of rice with 69 %. The rest such as price, taste, and ease of access were not satisfied as the important attributes were not well performed. Furthermore, the CSI score illustrated that the satisfaction of eco-friendly consumers in all classes was at the “satisfied” status.

How to Exploit Market Power: Horizontal Ownership Concentration and Network Access Pricing

This article reports an evaluation of the impact of horizontal ownership concentration on communications sector access pricing outcomes. Detailed historical data of postacquisition impacts on firms’ access revenue outcomes have enabled analysis for the entire local exchange sector of the United States telecommunications industry. The findings are (1) the sector’s horizontal ownership concentration process has caused key access-providing firms’ average access revenue ratios to be over 16 percent higher; (2) access revenue enhancements, through using market power, by entities belonging to larger groupings, have resulted in aggregate annual fiscal windfalls of between $5 and $6 billion; (3) these windfalls have accounted for between 4.5 and 5 percent of provider firms’ total revenues; (4) on average, each entity evaluated has received approximately between $120 and $150 million in incremental annual revenues via potential overcharge of access rates; and (5) United States telecommunications customers have incurred a between 6 and 7 percent overcharge on monthly bills, over several years, because network access charges have been higher, in part due to horizontal ownership concentration. Access charges are regulated, and horizontal ownership concentration-enhancing deals were allowed only after stringent institutional assessments. The resultant market power exploitation has led to the significant exploitation of United States telecommunications customers. Creation of substantial potential, and across-the-board, inflationary pressures and harm to consumers has been immense. Classic topics, such as access regulation and merger control, remain contemporary, demanding detailed attention, if digital technology is to be ubiquitous in humanity’s service. Concomitantly, key contemporary corporate governance concerns, relating to the emergence of horizontal ownership concentration patterns, also become apposite since the associated outcomes have innate major welfare impacts.

Online Grocery Shopping: Exploring the Influence of Income, Internet Access, and Food Prices

Online grocery shopping has grown rapidly in recent years. It has been promoted as a way to overcome the systemic inequalities in food access and increase sustainable food practices. A growing body of studies has highlighted the impact of income, food prices, and internet access/connection on shaping people’s behavior in buying groceries online. However, there is a dearth of prior studies that have examined the impact of these three factors at the macro/meso level. Therefore, this paper presents an analysis of these factors from a sample of 16 Russian regions with a combined population size of more than 44 million people. We used a fixed effects linear regression model to analyze panel data on median income, mobile internet connection, food price index, and online grocery sales. Our results show the significant impact of income and imply that while online grocery shopping holds huge promise for overcoming unequal access to food and achieving sustainability, entrenched challenges such as poverty and income inequality might be difficult to shake off.

Retailer access pricing and supplier relations in the agency model

AbstractIn vertical relations where a retailer enters into agency contracts with multiple heterogenous suppliers of unrelated products, I show the retailer can turn the products into complements or substitutes by charging or subsidizing consumers for access. The optimal access price depends critically on the revenue share that the retailer takes from each supplier, and the retailer's cross‐price elasticity with respect to each supplier's price. When firms price simultaneously, the retailer optimally subsidizes consumer access if and only if the aggregate of these two factors across all suppliers exceeds 1. When the retailer prices before suppliers, it benefits from an additional demand amplification effect: The retailer can use the access price to manipulate suppliers' best responses such that they always lead to demand surges across the whole network of suppliers, which then benefits the retailer through revenue sharing. Under different circumstances, the retailer may achieve this through either further raising a positive access price, or further reducing a negative access price.

Pediatric Market Access: A Qualitative Study.

This qualitative study aims to analyze current PM regulation and market access requirements and proposes potential solutions to mitigate current challenges. Twenty-two semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts from pharmaceutical industry, regulatory authorities, national health technology assessment (HTA) bodies, pediatricians, and academia from the Netherlands (NL), Germany (DE), the United Kingdom (UK), and France (FR) to get insight into the pediatric research, the regulatory and reimbursement processes, challenges, and solutions. Themes for further testing were developed on how to facilitate pediatric market access. Atlas.ti 9 was used to analyze the findings. Heterogeneity in requirements for the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and HTA approvals are noted. By example, DE grants direct reimbursement after regulatory approval, the other countries require additional reimbursement which generate delays and challenges in patient access after marketing authorization. Key components in facilitating PM market access include multi-stakeholder collaboration, transparency, patient representatives, informed consent guidance, real-world evidence, and appropriate clinical trial designs. Pricing models based on the economic capabilities of individual countries could further reduce delays and challenges in market access. The additional specific pediatric incentives should be taken as best practice to encourage innovation in pediatric conditions. This study highlights differences in requirements for regulatory and reimbursement approval, along with international differences in pricing and reimbursement procedures for pediatric market access.

The Effect of the Iranian Surfactant (Beraksurf) in the Treatment of Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Premature Neonates

Background: Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is a type of lung development defect that is commonly seen in preterm births. Deficiency of pulmonary surfactant due to immaturity is the principal cause of RDS in premature infants. This study was conducted with the aim of Iranian surfactant (Beraksurf)’s effect in treating RDS in premature neonates.&#x0D; Methods: In this study, all infants who were premature and had RDS were included in the study. Also, the infants were examined based on primary and secondary outcomes. Primary outcomes include the duration of need for nasal continuous positive airway pressure (NCPAP), number of surfactant administration, and secondary outcomes including bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), pneumothorax, and pulmonary hemorrhage.&#x0D; Results: A total of 162 neonates with a mean gestational age of 31.28 ± 2.58 weeks were evaluated. The 120 people (74.1%) used medicine only on the first day, 19 people on other days, and 23 people on the first and second day. Also, 141 children (87.6%) were discharged from the hospital and unfortunately, 20 children (12.4%) died. The prevalence of pneumothorax, BPD, and pulmonary hemorrhage was 1.8%, 1.2%, and 1.2% respectively. Also, 69.7% needed less than five days of mechanical ventilation and 30.2% needed more than 5 days of mechanical ventilation.&#x0D; Conclusion: Considering getting better treatment results from taking Beraksurf, as well as fewer side effects and the fact that this drug is Iranian, and due to its easier access and cheaper price, we can pay more attention to the prescription of this drug.

Public data access and stock price synchronicity: Evidence from China

This paper investigates how public data facilitates financial market informativeness. The increasing information efficiency in digital economics has raised great attention in extant literature. Using the staggered difference-in-differences approach, we investigate how public data access enhanced by establishing governmental public data platforms affects stock price synchronicity, measured by the relative importance of firm-specific information to market-level information capitalized into stock prices. We find that public data access significantly reduces local firms' stock price synchronicity. The underlying mechanism is that public data access mitigates information-acquisition costs and facilitates the incorporation of firm-specific information into investors' decision-making rather than increased market attention or corporate disclosure quality. Public data platforms’ informational role is magnified when investors face higher informed trade risk or concern about poor corporate governance. Under the urgent need for value realization of data elements, we provide essential implications in promoting public data opening to improve financial market efficiency.

Hand-held echocardiography-based heart failure screening in hypertensive or diabetic patients in community: a pilot study

Abstract Background There is lack of solid data on screening methods for preclinical heart failure (HF) in primary care settings. Standard echocardiography is not regarded as a routine test due to high cost and need of operation by specialists. Hand-held echocardiography (HHE) has been used in various clinical settings with easier access and lower price but has never been integrated into HF screening programme. Purpose This study aimed to explore the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of hand HHE-based HF screening strategies in patients with risk factors in community. Methods The registered patients with hypertension or diabetes at two Chinese community health service centres (CHSCs) who had not been diagnosed previously as HF were recruited. Every patient received symptom assessment (dyspnea and/or lower limb edema), blood test for N-terminal-probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP ≥ 125 pg/ml regarded as positive), and HHE for any indexed abnormality in the dedicated protocol with focused and semiquantitative scanning [i.e. left ventricular (LV) dilation, left atrial (LA) dilation, interventricular septum (IVS) thickening, LV systolic dysfunction by calipers, as well as region wall motion abnormality, valvular stenosis, ≥moderate valvular regurgitation, significant pericardial effusion by eyeballing). By using the results of all the three modalities for screening compared to the concurrent guidelines, the patients were categorized into HF stages A, B, or C as the "gold standard". Three screening strategies were proposed (Figure 1), of which Strategy I was designed as a single test, Strategy II as a combined test, and Strategy III as a stratified stepwise test. Diagnostic accuracy and cost-effectiveness of each strategy was calculated in comparison with the "gold standard". Results A total of 423 patients (70 ± 9 years; 46.6% males) were enrolled. There were 166 (39.2%) symptomatic patients, while 106 (25.1%) patients had elevated NT-proBNP. HHE abnormalities were found in 286 (67.0%) patients, of which IVS thickening was the most common finding (47.0%), followed by LA enlargement (30.0%). LV systolic dysfunction was identified in 18 (4.3%) patients. 232 (54.8%) and 59 (13.9%) patients were reclassified as HF stage B and C, respectively. As shown in Figure 2, the stepwise Strategy III of using symptoms for the first stratification, followed by choosing HHE or NT-proBNP test led to a 100% accuracy and a 35.6% reduction in cost. Conclusions HHE-based focused screening detects HF earlier in high-risk populations. The screening strategy combined with symptoms, NT-proBNP, and HHE is feasible for identifying underdiagnosed HF stage B or C that may be considered in primary care.Scheme of HF stage screening strategiesHF Screening and cost-effectiveness

Can International Freshwater Trade Contribute to the SDG 6

Freshwater is fundamental for all aspects of human well-being and sustainable development. The supply of freshwater resource largely depends on the natural water cycle, leading to extremely unequal distribution over the world. This uneven distribution and increasing freshwater demand results in spatial and temporal physical freshwater shortage. By discussing the limitations of desalination techniques and the shortcomings of existing pathways for freshwater transfer including water transfer projects, bottled water market, and virtual water trade, we suggest that international freshwater trade as an additional pathway is necessary. The analysis of the cost structure of freshwater production and transportation and the hypothetical examples between potential exporting and importing countries show the feasibility of international freshwater trade. The establishment of a global freshwater market is confronted with six challenges, namely, natural sustainability, ecological safety, opinions of stakeholders, market access mechanism, pricing mechanism, and infrastructure system. We conclude that a global freshwater market is expected to make contributions to achieving SDG 6 by mitigating spatial and temporal freshwater scarcity and by resolving transboundary freshwater conflicts and managing local freshwater consumptions.