Abundant Rain Research Articles

Physoderma Brown Spot and Stalk Rot of Corn Caused by Physoderma maydis in Iowa

Physoderma brown spot (PBS) and stalk rot (PSR) of corn is caused by Physoderma maydis. The prevalence of PBS in the U.S. Corn Belt has increased within the past decade. In Iowa, in 2013 and 2014, PSR with associated stalk breakage was reported from numerous fields in western and northern Iowa. In some fields, up to 80% of plants in a field were affected. The reasons for the outbreak of PSR are unknown, although abundant rain during early growth of the corn likely played a role. Accepted for publication 2 April 2015. Published 4 May 2015.

What's driving adoption of in‐season nitrogen application?

What's driving adoption of in‐season nitrogen application?

Herding strategies during a drought vary at multiple scales in Mongolian rangeland

Grazing-induced degradation is an important issue in semi-arid and arid regions, particularly in key resource areas where livestock concentrate during droughts. However, this concentration assumes a single nomadic strategy, and in practice, pastoralists employ multiple mobility patterns in response to environmental and socioeconomic factors. We surveyed pastoralists to detect variation in herding strategies during a drought, such as key resource selection and travel distance. We defined two groups of strategies: small herds moved a short distance and used key resources; large herds moved a long distance and moved to areas with more abundant rain and plants instead of using key resources. These variations relate to the cost of long-distance travel, and suggest that grazing-induced degradation can occur at multiple scales; degradation of key resources in the study area may occur at a small scale, corresponding with the travel distance for small herds. Our study suggests that interactions between resource spatial heterogeneity and herding strategies at multiple scales should be considered when assessing grazing-induced degradation in highly variable environments.

Fluvial response to sudden input of pyroclastic sediments during the 2008–2009 eruption of the Chaitén Volcano (Chile): The role of logjams

The rhyolitic Plinian eruption of the Chilean Chaitén Volcano, initiated on May 2, 2008, suddenly introduced abundant pyroclastic sediments in the Blanco River catchment area, which experienced important modifications. Before May 2, the river was characterised by gravelly and moderate to low-sinuosity channels crossing a vegetated and locally urbanised (Chaitén City) floodplain. This river, limited by steep and densely forested highlands, was connected with the Pacific Ocean via a tidally-influenced delta plain. After heavy rains in May 11–20, the river discharge increased and triggered several responses including logjam formation and breakage, crevassing, avulsion (and channel abandonment), changes in the pattern and dimensions of channels, and construction of a new delta plain area. In this context, the goals of this contribution were: i) to document the sedimentological processes within a detailed geomorphic framework and ii) to understand the influence of logjams on fluvial dynamics. Upstream of the logjam zone, the deposits are mostly composed of ash and lapilli with abundant palaeovolcanic (epiclastic) sediments, which were produced by dilute currents and debris flows. Downstream of the logjam zone, deposits are composed by ash and lapilli, both pumice-rich and lacking important participation of older (epiclastic) sediments. The abandoned and filled palaeochannel, and the proximal part of crevasse splays experienced transient dilute flows with variable sediment concentration and, subordinately, hyperconcentrated flows. The distal sectors of crevasse splays mostly record settling from suspension. At the delta plain, tephra transported by the Blanco River was mixed with older sediments by tide and wave action (dilute flows). We conclude that immediately after eruption, both geomorphic and sedimentary processes of the river were mainly controlled by a combination of high availability of incoherent pyroclastic sediments on steep slopes, abundant rains, large logs that jammed the river and huge areas of devastated forest. Logjams played an important role in the river response to the volcanic eruption; they were responsible of the marked compositional change recorded upstream and downstream of the logjam zone and its breakage resulted in downstream flooding and avulsion. The likelihood of formation of logjams in rivers draining forested volcanic areas should be considered in the evaluation of volcanic hazards related to Plinian eruptions.

Dredging of the fractured bedrock-lined Mississippi River Channel at Thebes, Illinois

The usually abundant slow soaking rain systems and evening thunderstorms that characterize the Great Plains climate from May through August (Hoerling 2013) were absent in 2012. As a result, the Ohio and Mississippi rivers dropped to near record levels from July of 2012 through January of 2013, and the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) faced a new challenge to their ability to control the Mississippi River. The 2012 drought reduced the channel depths on the upper Mississippi River between Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis, Missouri, to only 0.3 to 1.8 m (1 to 6 ft) above the 2.7 m (9 ft) deep navigation shipping channel created by USACE in response to the 1930 Rivers and Harbors Act. Of greatest concern was the bedrock-lined river shipping channel near Thebes, Illinois, which threatened to ground barge traffic transporting critical agricultural supplies, including fertilizers and grain.

Study on the Extraction of the Water Bodies from Remote Sensing Image Using ENVI Software – Applied to the River Environmental Protection in Qinzhou

In this study, the main water body of remote sensing image was extracted with the maximum likelihood algorithm of ENVI software based on Qinzhou's remote sensing images 2008 and 2011. From the remote sensing images, it was found that the area of the water body was greatly reduced, and also the water body has been polluted differently. In this paper, the urgent environmental protections of Qinzhou's main rivers are analyzed in view of the reduced water body, and also some suggestions on water body conservation are proposed. Overview of Qinzhou Qinzhou is located between V20°52 and 22°41 N, and 107°27 and 109°56 S. The total area of Qinzhou is about 10842.73 square kilometers. It is in the corner of the South China Sea, and is the core base of the north gulf economic region. Thus, it takes an absolute advantage in logistics. The national patriotism education bases for elementary and middle schools in Qinzhou are the former homes of two national heroes (Yongfu LIU, and Zicai FENG). In Qinzhou, there is a coastline of more than 520 kilometers, and many excellently natural harbors such as Qinzhou Port, Longmen Port, Shajing Port, and Siluo Port are available here. Also, there are abundant product advantages. The climate is hot. Many rivers and water reservoirs are available. Soil and plants are flourishing greatly. Since the new century, Qinzhou government as well as the governments of all counties greatly invest Qinzhou, carry out urban and rural clean engineering, urban infrastructure project construction, and agricultural preferential policies, and establish multi-form and multi-dimensional economic and technical cooperation with foreign and domestic companies, in which business is easy to process and the procedures are simple to handle. In 2013, the high-speed rail has brought a new era to Qinzhou. Qinzhou's advantages in climate conditions, rain conditions, and water resources Qinzhou is located in the subtropical zone and features a transitional marine monsoon climate. The overall terrain forms are mountains, hills, terraces plains, and coastal mud flats from northwest to southeast. From east to north, the main mountain is LIUWAN Mountain. From west to north, the main mountain is SHIWAN Mountain. The annual average temperature is 22°C; the absolute maximum temperature was 37.5°C (July 28, 1968), and the absolute lowest temperature was-1.8°C (January 12, 1955). The average annual rainfall is about 1600mm; the average sunshine period is about 1800 hours, and the frost-free period is more than 350 days. The solar radiation amount is 104.6~108.8 kilocalorie/cm2; the annual sunshine duration is 1633.6~1801.4 hours; the annual average temperature is 21.4°C~22°C; the annual total accumulated temperature is 7800°C~ 8200°C. The average frost-free period of previous years was 329~354 days. The water resources advantages of Qinzhou include humid temperature, abundant rain, and annual rainfall of 1600mm~1900mm. Major rivers include Qinjiang, Maolingjiang, Nanliujiang, and Dafengjiang, and the annual runoff is 11.728 billion cubic meters. The gross storage capacity of small, middle, and large reservoirs has reached 805 million cubic meters. Qinzhou's remote sensing image and the river remote sensing images of recent years The water yield of the main rivers in Qinzhou is abundant and falls greatly, so the hydropower resource is rich. The rivers in Qinzhou are small and medium-sized, own a large quantity of flow, and flow into the sea, but do not form drainage.

New Techniques for the Analysis of the Limno-morpho-bathymetric Parameters in the Lacustrine Basins. Case Study: Red Lake in the Hăşmaş Mountains (Romania)

Red Lake in the Hasmas (Curmaturii) Mountains was formed by the natural barrage of the Bicaz brook in 1837. The north-western slope of the Ghilcos Mountain, covered with gravel, slide as a result of the alteration layer water saturation following the abundant rains in that period. The lake has an „L” shape, or the shape of a leg with the foot oriented towards north. Red Lake is supplied by several brooks with permanent character: Oii, Ghilcos, Verescheu, Suhard. As a result of the measurements we made in the summer of 2009, using Leica Total Station and sonar, the following data were obtained: area 12.01 hectares; perimeter 2905.79 m; maximum length 1361.72 m; maximum width 160.24 m; maximum altitude upstream in the south 965.199 m; maximum altitude upstream in the north 966.041 m; maximum depth 10.50 m etc. The greatest depths, of 10.5 m, are recorded in the central sector, close to the outlet of the two arteries. In a transversal profile, the western bank is steeper and hard (lithologically), and the eastern bank is mild and crumbly (landslide diluvium). In the same way the submerse slopes are maintained as well. New techniques of analysing the hydro-morphological parameters for a lacustrine basin have been used. Methods specific to land geomorphology (slope inclination, slope orientation etc) have also been used. The cartographic representation, as a new thing in the field, is suggestive, and helps in elaborating an interdisciplinary interpretation, of a limno-ecological nature.

Respuesta eco-hidrológica de los suelos en campos abandonados (sur de España)

The process of field abandonment in marginal areas by the entry of agricultural activity, and of the “agricultural natural economy” crisis, has been a real change of land use on a large scale. The effects of the abandonment of the field about the quality of the land vary widely, depending on weather conditions and the state of soils, highly variable from the spatio-temporal standpoint. Thus, soils under favourable climatic conditions, with vegetation cover, can regenerate over time by the accumulation of organic material and increase their biological activity and fauna, improving its structure, increasing infiltration of water and, therefore, decreasing the potential water erosion. The purpose of this work was to characterize the vegetation pattern of several abandoned fields for more than 50 years, located in the internal Bethics mountain ranges on lithology of metamorphic reliefs, as well as the hydrological response from their soils by tracking spatio-temporal of the soil moisture and the application of simulated rain, with special emphasis on the effect caused by their surface conditions. The results have shown as surface conditions from their soils are indicating different stages in the evolution of these after the abandonment of agricultural activity: the fields with more abundant rains have struck a balance between their conditions climatic, topographical and erosive, while those who are in most semi-arid conditions still are at an earlier stage where water erosion can present a high activity during rare rain events.

Аеропалінологічний спектр м. Дніпропетровськ як основа профілактики сезонної алергії

Hay fever is important allergenic complain with number of patients rising year by year. Ukraine holds the leading positions in Europe in accordance with pollinosis morbidity. Therefore, it’s important to determine regional pollen spectrum for all five climatic and geographical zones of the country having certain variety of plants’ allergens. There are just a few cities with a constant pollen monitoring carried out in Ukraine. They are Vinnytsia, Kyiv, Odessa and Lviv. Palynological range of other Ukrainian cities remains unknown or poorly studied. Dnipropetrovsk – Ukrainian city with location in the Central part of the country in the Steppe zone – isn’t exception as well. Thus, the aim of our study was to determine the pattern of airborne pollen distribution and pollen calendar creation for the city of Dnipropetrovsk. Pollen count obtained at Vinnytsia National Pirogov Memorial Medical University (VNMU) by Aerobiology Research Group. Study was held in 2010 from the 17th of March till the 20th of October on daily basis employed volumetric methods using the Burkard trap. It stands on the roof of the Dnipropetrovsk Municipal hospital at 20 meters of a relative height above ground. The air samples were sent by currier mail on weekly basis from Dnipropetrovsk to Vinnytsia for the research term. 51 pollen types were determined during the study period. The aeropalinological research was done for the Dnipropetrovsk at first. Study was conducted in association with the European Aeroallergen Network (EAN). The EAN tools and the software package “Statistica 5.5” were used for data statistical analysis. The study showed prevalence of the airborne herbal pollen types in Dnipropetrovsk. The “weeds : trees” pollen ratio was «88 : 12». Most abundant pollen rain (59% of total annual pollen count) was produced by Ambrosia. The second position with 6% was held by Amaranthus / Chenopodiaceae pollen group and Urtica dioica pollen. Artemisia and other representatives of Asteraceae constituted of 5% each. The most abundant tree pollen rain (4% from total annual count) was produced by the Populus species. Betula pollen was the next having up 2% of annual pollen rain in Dnipropetrovsk. As can be seen, the first arboreal spring-summer pollination wave was not massive in Dnipropetrovsk. It was represented by Populus, Betula, Acer, Fraxinus, Quercus, Ulmus, Pinus, Juglans pollen spread in the end of March, whole April and the first weeks of May mostly. However, the second wave was intensively seen from the mid of July till the mid of October. Important airborne pollen producing taxa were Artemisisia, Ambrosia, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Urtica, Plantago, Polygonaceae pollen at that time. Important airborne pollen allergens of Poaceae family (grasses) held the 7th position in the total annual pollen rain and were recorded between two pollination waves from the mid of May till the end of June mostly. The worst period for the patients was associated with the Betula, Acer and Quercus pollination from 13th of April till the mid of May and with Ambrosia and Artemisia pollination from 28th of July, till September, 30. The present airborne pollen calendar should be considered while diagnosing the hay fever symptoms in sensitive patients. It’s important to continue the pollen count and control in Dnіpropetrovsk due to constant changing of climatic and anthropogenic conditions impacting the pollen production and release.

Diagnosing Kenya Rainfall in Boreal Autumn: Further Exploration

Abstract A powerful zonal vertical circulation cell along the Indian Ocean equator controls the boreal autumn rains in Kenya, with a tight negative correlation between surface westerlies (UEQ) and rainfall. UEQ is favored by a steep eastward pressure gradient (PWE) and slow winds in the downstream portion of the South Indian Ocean trade winds (SIW). The high phase of the Southern Oscillation (SO) favors weak SIW, lower pressure in the east, and thus steeper PWE, but that is also affected by pressure in the west. In 1958–97 circulation causalities were most distinct in the regime of abundant rain and slow UEQ, with the SO in the low phase. In the regime of deficient rain and fast UEQ, relationships were less distinct, although the SO was in the high phase almost throughout. In the decade 2001–10, UEQ had a weaker (stronger) correlation with PWE (SIW), the SO was more active and contributing in the proper sense to pressure in the east, but PWE was mainly controlled by pressure in the west. UEQ strongly controlled the rainfall in 1958–97 and 2001–10.

Climate change effects fruiting of the prize matsutake mushroom in China

Climate change affects various facets of life but there is little data on its effects on wild mushroom fruiting. Yunnan Province in China is a rich source of wild mushrooms and has experienced a temperature rise over recent decades. This has resulted in warmer temperatures but the impacts of these changes on mushroom production lack documentation. We collected data on the fruiting of the highly prized matsutake mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake) in West Yunnan, China over an 11 year period from 2000 to 2010. Fruiting phenology and productivity were compared against the driving meteorological variables using Projection to Latent Structure regression. The mushrooms appeared later in the season during the observation period, which is most likely explained by rising temperatures and reduced rain during May and June. High temperature and abundant rain in August resulted in good productivity. The climate response of matsutake production results from a sequence of processes that are possibly linked with regulatory signals and resource availability. To advance the knowledge of this complex system, a holistic research approach integrating biology, ecology, genetics, physiology, and phytochemistry is needed. Our results contribute to a general model of fungal ecology, which can be used to predict the responses of fungi to global climate change.

Microbiological and isotopic geochemical research in the arid steppe lakes and sor solonchaks of Western Transbaikalia

The rates of microbial processes in the sor solonchaks and the silts of the Western Transbaikalean saline lakes were investigated. The rate of deep CO2 fixation in the silt of Lake Beloe was as high as 0.19 mg C dm−3 day−1. The content of cellulose and protein in the sor solonchaks (for air-dry material) were up to 5.0 and 0.42 mg g−1, respectively. The rates of cellulose decomposition and proteolysis in the silt were 1.08 and 0.96 % day−1, respectively. Sulfate reduction (up to 1.82 mg S dm−3 day−1) prevails at the terminal stages of anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in the silt. During the flooding period, methanogenesis producing isotopically light CH4 probably prevails in the sor solonchaks and arid soils of the region. This suggestion is supported by the surface foaming of the local arid soils after abundant monsoon rains, an increase in the δ13C value for soil carbonates to -5.94‰ along the solonchak profile, and a decrease in the ·13C value for the soil carbonates formed by methane-oxidizing bacteria to −11.41‰. The seasonal peaks of isotopically heavier (to −16.60‰) organic matter in the bottom sediments of the lake may be explained as the result of activity of heterotrophic sulfate reducers, which exhibited the highest growth rates at the peak sulfate concentrations in the silt.

Geomorphology, tectonism and Quaternary landscape evolution of the central Andes of San Juan (30°S–69°W), Argentina

The north–south trending valley of Iglesia is a regional tectonic depression limited to the west by the Cordillera Frontal Unit and to the east by Precordillera Occidental Mountain Units. The forms of the resulting landscape in the region are the result of glacial, periglacial, fluvial and alluvial action, aggradational and deggradational processes, as well as neotectonic activity and climatic changes.The generation of large Quaternary alluvial fan aggradational surfaces is related to previous climatic conditions, colder and more humid than the present ones. Abundant snowfalls and rains during the Pleistocene made possible detritus deposition, generating alluvial covers whose thickness increases toward the east. These climatic conditions alternated with arid periods, during which vertical erosion of streams prevailed, forming a landscape of stepped levels.In addition, the presence of faults with Quaternary tectonic activity indicates, a strong structural control in the evolution of the landscape during the Pleistocene–Holocene periods, effectively starting vertical erosion and finishing a cycle of erosion-accumulation and the beginning of the following one.

A dinâmica atmosférica no centro-sul do Brasil no verão e as influencias do El Niño Oscilação Sul (ENOS)

The atmospheric dynamics of the Central Southern Brazil was studied by means of four weather stations situated in the area of Campo Mourao, PR, Caceres, MT, Brasilia, DF and Caparao MG in three summers. The summer is characterized by abundant convective rains, mainly in the north of the Tropic of Capricorn. In southern Brazil the interannual variability is increased in years of El Nino and La Nina, and on the region lying north of the tropics there is no accurate information. To investigate the dynamics of air masses that were active in the South-Center of Brazil and the genesis of the rain, weather systems were studied by means of the spatial- temporal patterns. The main aim was to determine the percentage of frontal and convective rainfall and account for the involvement of the air masses in the atmospheric dynamics in the summer, in a climatologic normal year (2008/2009), in a year with the manifestation of the La Nina (2007/2008) and in a year with El Nino (2009/2010). In Caceres and in Brasilia the time of action of the Polar Atlantic mass is limited to sporadic events, while the continental Equatorial mass increases at the same rate. The main consequence of this is the convective rainfall. It was also found that for Campo Mourao and Caparao the frontal systems, the Polar Atlantic and the Atlantic Tropical masses contributed actively to the types of weather. Although there are few researches regarding this theme, in this study it was found that in the summer of 2007/2008, of La Nina event, the rainfall was higher.

Property Research of Carbon Fiber Reinforced High Performance Concrete Containing Limestone Powder

In this paper, the properties of CF (carbon fiber) reinforced HPC (high performance concrete) containing LP (limestone powder) have been studied including its compressive strength, flexural strength, chloride ion permeation resistance, wearability and acid rain resistance. The results show that flexural strength, acid rain resistance and wearability of CF reinforced HPC containing LP are all better than those of LP HPC without CF, moreover, its flexural strength at 7days and 28days are both larger than 10MPa. While the short-term compressive strength and resistance to chloride ion permeation are decreased by introducing CF. Also the results indicate that CF reinforced HPC containing LP suits to be used as road pavement materials in abundant acid rain area.

Rainfall uncertainty in the Mediterranean: time series, uncertainty, and extreme events

Temporal precipitation irregularities, extreme rainfall, or droughts represent great climate concerns and have major impacts on the natural environment. The present study focuses on 41 stations spread over the entire Mediterranean region. The datasets contain daily rainfall totals, with a median length of 56 years within the period of 1931–2006. The study aims at detecting significant trends in the time series and the uncertainties of four parameters: annual rainfall total, number of rain spells, the rain-spells yields, and rainy season length. In addition, it aims to detect significant temporal changes in the occurrence of extreme events of these parameters. Several methodologies have been used in this study, and the main conclusion is that despite the general assumption of tremendous changes in the rainfall regime, no significant temporal trends or uncertainty trends were found in most of the stations, neither in their annual totals, their number of rain spells, and their rain-spell yields, nor in their rainy season length. However, in the few cases that a significant trend was detected, former years tended to be wetter, longer, and with more abundant rain spells, while the opposite is seen in the later years; and uncertainty, tends to increase more than to decrease.

Characteristics of Precipitation, Cloud, and Latent Heating Associated with the Madden–Julian Oscillation

Abstract This study investigates the evolution of cloud and rainfall structures associated with Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) data. Two complementary indices are used to define MJO phases. Joint probability distribution functions (PDFs) of cloud-top temperature and radar echo-top height are constructed for each of the eight MJO phases. The genesis stage of MJO convection over the western Pacific (phases 1 and 2) features a bottom-heavy PDF, characterized by abundant warm rain, low clouds, suppressed deep convection, and higher sea surface temperature (SST). As MJO convection develops (phases 3 and 4), a transition from the bottom-heavy to top-heavy PDF occurs. The latter is associated with the development of mixed-phase rain and middle-to-high clouds, coupled with rapid SST cooling. At the MJO convection peak (phase 5), a top-heavy PDF contributed by deep convection with mixed-phase and ice-phase rain and high echo-top heights (>5 km) dominates. The decaying stage (phases 6 and 7) is characterized by suppressed SST, reduced total rain, increased contribution from stratiform rain, and increased nonraining high clouds. Phase 7, in particular, signals the beginning of a return to higher SST and increased warm rain. Phase 8 completes the MJO cycle, returning to a bottom-heavy PDF and SST conditions similar to phase 1. The structural changes in rain and clouds at different phases of MJO are consistent with corresponding changes in derived latent heating profiles, suggesting the importance of a diverse mix of warm, mixed-phase, and ice-phase rain associated with low-level, congestus, and high clouds in constituting the life cycle and the time scales of MJO.

Effects of June winds on rainfall in the coastal region of Kenya

Although the equatorial Eastern region of Africa is adjacent to the Indian Ocean, it tends to exhibit a drier climate rather than one characterized by abundant tropical rains. A number of studies on rainfall variability in the East African region have tended to suggest a stronger influence of local factors in controlling rainfall amounts and their characteristics rather than the global wind circulation system. A climatic phenomenon that is locally termed “June winds” is unique to East Africa’s coastal region. The study mainly involved analysing rainfall anomalies and means of 39- year meteorological data from the region and data from earlier studies about the region. The results indicate that June winds occur annually after the onset of long rains between the months of May and June. They impart subsidence, drying and cloud free conditions, altering the climatological properties in the areas they traverse. The attainment of peak June wind velocities causes a characteristic depression in rainfall probability and amounts on their course, similar to the ‘Ganges depression’ of temperatures in the Indian subcontinent, which in turn affects available soil moisture for crop growth. The results also reveal existence of years of “above-normal rains” (herein referred to as El Niño years) and years of “below-normal rains” (herein referred to as La Niña years) which are associated and modulated by El Niño southern oscillation. They also reveal that drought years tend to occur in succession and that the June winds tend to be suppressed or absent during El Niño years, but strongly associate with La Niña years. The study suggests that the frequency and therefore the ratio of La Niña years to El Niño years have been increasing. The study also suggests possibility of developing a decision support system for farmers in resource use and allocation based predicted time of occurrence of the June winds.

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SURFACE WATER TREATMENT USING ALUMINIUM SULPHATE AND POLYALUMINIUM CHLORIDES AS COAGULANT REAGENTS

The paper presents the comparative study regarding the turbidity removal using aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3*18H2O and polyaluminum chlorides, Aln(OH)mCl3n-m, commercial name, Sachtoklarr 39, in water treatment plant from Covasna City. The parameters that influence the treatment process and the efficiency of turbidity removal were studied. The water characteristic parameters of Basca Mare and Covasna rivers - the two sources of water alimentation for Covasna water treatment plant were monitored along the year 2007. The turbidity varied from small values admitted by legislation during the winter months up to 753,8 NTU for Basca Mare river and up to 1076 NTU for Covasna river during June with abundant rain and flooding. The efficiency of turbidity removal was much better for polyaluminum chlorides comparatively to aluminium sulphate.

Extreme flood on the Danube River in 2006

Causes and features of an extreme flood on the Danube River in spring and summer 2006 are considered. The water levels at some gauge stations on the Middle Danube and at most gauge stations on the Lower Danube exceeded maxima observed during previous 100–130 years. The flood on the Lower Danube lasted from March to July and led to widespread inundations and damage. The flood was caused by melt of large amounts of snow accumulated in the river basin during winter, very warm spring, and abundant rains. In recent decades, the occurrence frequency of extreme hydrological events on the Danube River (large spring-summer floods and catastrophic rainfall freshets) has increased.