Ungulate Abundance Research Articles

Conserving wildlife amongst the cotton fields. A third of a century of experience at the Nazinga Game Ranch, Burkina Faso.

Established in the early 1970 as a participatory wildlife production area, the Nazinga Game Ranch turned into an island of conservation surrounded by cultivation. We asked ourselves how long-term ungulate trends are affected in a context of continuous human pressure. To find out, we compiled and analysed the data of yearly line-transect counts of mammals carried out since 1985. Results showed that large species such as the elephant (Loxodonta africana) and large antelopes increased or showed stable populations. In contrast, medium and small ungulates showed continuously decreasing trends. During the same period, rainfall, water availability from artificial water points and the crop encroaching outside Nazinga Game Ranch increased. After an initial significant reduction, illegal human signs increased. However, we showed that human signs were positively correlated with the abundance of large ungulates but negatively correlated with the abundance of medium and small ones. In conclusion, this study showed that some isolated mammal populations could be restored and maintained in the long term, in spite of being surrounded by highly cultivated areas.

Ungulate impacts on herbaceous‐layer plant communities in even‐aged and uneven‐aged managed forests

AbstractForest management and ungulate herbivory are extant drivers of herbaceous‐layer community composition and diversity. We conducted a white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) exclosure experiment across a managed landscape to determine how deer impacts interact with the type of forest management system in influencing herb‐layer (all vascular plants < 0.5 m tall) species richness and composition. Our study took place 3 yr after harvest in a deciduous forest landscape being managed through even‐aged (~4.1 ha openings) and uneven‐aged (~1.4 ha openings) silvicultural systems. We expected the severity of deer impacts on herb layer species richness and composition to vary according to opening position, opening size, and the spatial scale of inference. At forest stand and landscape scales, species richness within silvicultural openings was greater outside compared to inside deer exclosures, and did not differ according to deer access in edges or the forest matrix. However, greater levels of species richness associated with deer access were driven by infrequently occurring forbs, and overall species composition did not differ. Notably, these species were not exotics or ferns. Deer reduced the density of large saplings and blackberry (Rubus spp.) shrubs in the smaller openings characteristic of uneven‐aged management stands, but had no effect on sapling density in the larger openings characteristic of even‐aged management stands. This result extends the forage maturation hypothesis to silvicultural systems, and is consistent with predictions that plant tolerance and avoidance of herbivory increase with resource availability. Deer may have facilitated the establishment of forbs in recently created silvicultural openings by temporarily slowing sapling regeneration, creating establishment sites through physical disturbance, and seed dispersal via epizoochory and endozoochory. This outcome is contingent upon declining deer visitation rates as woody vegetation matures as well as distance from source populations of exotic species. We conclude that ecological context, such as local ungulate abundance, disturbance, and landscape factors, influence how ungulates interact with forest management systems.

Spatial heterogeneity in the carrying capacity of sika deer in Japan.

Carrying capacity is 1 driver of wildlife population dynamics. Although in previous studies carrying capacity was considered to be a fixed entity, it may differ among locations due to environmental variation. The factors underlying variability in carrying capacity, however, have rarely been examined. Here, we investigated spatial heterogeneity in the carrying capacity of Japanese sika deer ( Cervus nippon ) from 2005 to 2014 in Yamanashi Prefecture, central Japan (mesh with grid cells of 5.5×4.6 km) by state-space modeling. Both carrying capacity and density dependence differed greatly among cells. Estimated carrying capacities ranged from 1.34 to 98.4 deer/km 2 . According to estimated population dynamics, grid cells with larger proportions of artificial grassland and deciduous forest were subject to lower density dependence and higher carrying capacity. We conclude that population dynamics of ungulates may vary spatially through spatial variation in carrying capacity and that the density level for controlling ungulate abundance should be based on the current density level relative to the carrying capacity for each area.

Do protected areas in Panama support intact assemblages of ungulates?

Ungulates play an essential role in terrestrial ecosystems, but suffer from hunting and habitat degradation which often results in their decline. Panama harbors five species of ungulate and is an important portion of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, but its forest habitat and its fauna are currently threatened. Protected areas have been designated to preserve the biodiversity, but studies evaluating their effectiveness in maintaining ungulates are lacking in Panama. In this study we used camera-trapping surveys to determine the occurrence and abundance of the ungulate species in 13 protected areas across Panama. There were large differences in the ungulate communities among the sites we surveyed. Some sites were impoverished with just one ungulate species recorded while just a single site harbored all five species. The white-lipped peccary was the rarest species and the collared peccaries the most common, captured in all the sites. Moreover, we found large variation in ungulate abundance across the sites. Our results indicate that few protected areas in Panama effectively maintain the entire assemblage of ungulate species.

Abundance, herd size, activity pattern and occupancy of ungulates in Southeastern Mexico

This study provides information about relative abundance, herd size, activity pattern, and occupancy of ungulates at Los Chimalapas, southeastern Mexico, one of the last refuges inhabited by two conservation priority ungulate species:Tapirus bairdiiandTayassu pecari. For three years, four species of ungulates were recorded using camera traps:T. bairdii,T. pecari,Mazama temama, andTayassu tajacu, involving an effort of 8529 trap-days and 839 records.T. pecariwas found to be highest in relative abundance, whileT. tajacu’s abundance was lowest. Populations were composed principally of adults, but there were records of offspring for all four species. The herd size was smaller compared to other populations ofT. tajacuandT. pecari. Occupancy models were used to analyze the presence of the species in the region and showed thatM. temamaandT. bairdiihad a high occupancy probability. In comparison, the occupancy probability ofT. pecariwas low. This study shows that ungulate populations are still breeding, and have higher possibility of permanence, in Los Chimalapas, Southeastern Mexico. The region is an important area for the conservation ofT. bairdiiandT. pecari, both disappeared from some other areas of the southeast.

Factors Affecting Red-Legged PartridgeAlectoris rufaAbundance on Big-Game Hunting Estates: Implications for Management and Conservation

The red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa is not only the most important bird game species but also an important prey species for many predators in Iberia. However, its populations have significantly declined in recent decades, principally as the result of agricultural intensification on arable land. Its abundance has also undergone a significant decline in forested areas over the last few decades, where wild ungulate management and abundance have increased. In this scenario, we aimed to test the factors that affect red-legged partridge abundance in relation to high wild ungulate (wild boar and red deer) abundance in south-central Spain. The factors included as predictors were carnivore, wild boar and red deer abundances, vegetation features, nest predation rate and invertebrate availability. Red deer abundance showed a negative relationship with partridge abundance in spring (non-significant negative trends were also evident for carnivore and wild boar), whereas variables related to food availability (grass biomass, Hemipteran abundance and total invertebrate mass) had a positive effect in the same season. Moreover, deer and carnivore abundances and spring nest predation rate were negatively associated with partridge abundance in autumn. Plant biomass and Hemipteran abundance were negatively correlated with wild boar abundance, whereas maximum pasture height was negatively related to red deer and wild boar abundance. Overall, our results show that high ungulate densities may negatively affect partridge abundance, which may be mediated by (i) a reduction in food availability (invertebrate and herbaceous plant biomass) and (ii) nest predation by wild boar. This research has shown that current intensive big-game hunting management schemes in south-central Spain are often incompatible with red-legged partridge conservation, and that these effects should be taken into account when defining big-game management and conservation policies.

Wildlife and livestock use of extensive farm resources in South Central Spain: implications for disease transmission

The interactions of extensively farmed livestock with wild ungulates contribute to the transmission and maintenance of, among other diseases, tuberculosis (TB) at the interface in South Central Spain (SCS), where farming typically occurs close to wildlife habitats. The aim of this paper is to describe (i) the use of extensive farm resources by wildlife and livestock and (ii) the factors involved. Camera traps (CTs) were placed at a priori risk points (n = 149 points, 2145 CT days) for interspecies interactions: water points, buildings, food points, and acorn fields (which also provide rich pasture), on 11 representative extensive beef cattle (n = 6) and Iberian pig (n = 5) farms. The use of extensive farm resources by wild ungulates was frequent and widespread throughout the study area (over 50 % of daily presence per farm of either wild boar Sus scrofa or red deer Cervus elaphus). This presence increased when there was a high abundance of wild ungulates on nearby hunting estates. No direct interactions were detected, and livestock and wild ungulates partitioned resource use temporally, signifying that the interaction was mainly indirect. The wild species that used all farm resources with by far the most frequency was red deer, although its presence decreased markedly when far from woodland edges. The presence of cattle was positively associated with that of wild boar at all the CTs and specifically with red deer at water points and in acorn fields. Pig presence was negatively associated with that of wild boar, suggesting the existence of competence-mediated avoidance. We propose that interactions at the wildlife-livestock interfaces could be reduced by carrying out specific actions adapted to Mediterranean conditions and farm management: removing and segregating access to risky water points, the wise management of grazing in space and time, and protecting food-rich pasture plots and woodland edges by means of fencing, which is particularly interesting as regards attempting to prevent red deer from accessing areas occupied by livestock and vice versa. Biosecurity programs must be farm-specific, and the effectiveness, costs, and practical value of interventions should be adaptively evaluated in the field in future research.

Effects of ranger stations on predator and prey distribution and abundance in anIranian steppe landscape

AbstractRanger stations are essential to combat poaching in protected areas and the distance from ranger stations is sometimes used as a proxy for poaching levels and law enforcement intensity. However, the influence of the spatial distribution of ranger stations on wildlife abundance and population structure has rarely been investigated. We evaluated the abundance and distribution of urial sheepOvis vigneiandPersian leopardPanthera pardus saxicolorin the steppe ofGolestanNationalPark in northeasternIran. The spatial distribution of these species in regard to anthropogenic (distances to ranger stations, villages and park border) and environmental variables (distance to water resources, average slope and normalized difference vegetation index) was assessed using systematic line transect sampling (186 km) and camera trapping (1150 trap nights). The studied steppe area is divided into three management zones differing in the number of ranger stations and their position with respect to park boundaries. The results of multivariate analyses highlighted that the distance to ranger stations was negatively related to the size and density of urial clusters and the most important variable in explaining urial distribution. Moreover, the distance to park borders influenced urial cluster density. Leopard abundance was positively associated with urial density but was less affected by the other variables tested. We found urial densities in the three management zones to range from 0.15 ± se0.09 individuals km−2(zone with just one station outside the park) to 21.77 ± se7.92 individuals km−2(zone with three stations). Taking into account these results and historical data on ungulate abundance and distribution in these management zones, we conclude that law enforcement from ranger stations has shaped current patterns of ungulate distribution. These results confirm that a good coverage (both numbers and locations) of ranger stations is of central importance for the management of protected areas.

Does livestock benefit or harm snow leopards?

Large carnivores commonly prey on livestock when their ranges overlap. Pastoralism is the dominant land use type across the distributional range of the endangered snow leopard Panthera uncia. Snow leopards are often killed in retaliation against livestock depredation. Whether livestock, by forming an alternative prey, could potentially benefit snow leopards, or, whether livestock use of an area is detrimental to snow leopards is poorly understood. We examined snow leopard habitat use in a multiple use landscape that was comprised of sites varying in livestock abundance, wild prey abundance and human population size. We photographically sampled ten sites (average size 70sq. km) using ten camera traps in each site, deployed for a period of 60days. Snow leopard habitat use was computed as a Relative Use Index based on the total independent photographic captures and the number of snow leopard individuals captured at each site. We quantified livestock abundance, wild prey abundance, human population size and terrain ruggedness in each of the sites. Key variables influencing snow leopard habitat use were identified using Information Theory based model selection approach. Snow leopard habitat use was best explained by wild prey density, and showed a positive linear relationship with the abundance of wild ungulates. We found a hump-shaped relationship between snow leopard habitat use and livestock stocking density, with an initial increase in habitat use followed by a decline beyond a threshold of livestock density. Our results suggest that in the absence of direct persecution of snow leopards, livestock grazing and snow leopard habitat use are potentially compatible up to a certain threshold of livestock density, beyond which habitat use declines, presumably due to depressed wild ungulate abundance and associated anthropogenic disturbance.

Optimal predator management for mountain sheep conservation depends on the strength of mesopredator release

Large predators often suppress ungulate population growth, but they may also suppress the abundance of smaller predators that prey on neonatal ungulates. Antagonistic interactions among predators may therefore need to be integrated into predator–prey models to effectively manage ungulate–predator systems. We present a modeling framework that examines the net impact of interacting predators on the population growth rate of shared prey, using interactions among wolvesCanis lupus, coyotesCanis latransand Dall sheepOvis dalli dallias a case study. Wolf control is currently employed on approximately 16 million ha in Alaska to increase the abundance of ungulates for human harvest. We hypothesized that the positive effects of wolf control on Dall sheep population growth could be counteracted by increased levels of predation by coyotes. Coyotes and Dall sheep adult females (ewes) and lambs were radiocollared in the Alaska Range from 1999–2005 to estimate fecundity, age‐specific survival rates, and causes of mortality in an area without wolf control. We used stage‐structured population models to simulate the net effect of wolf control on Dall sheep population growth (λ). Our models accounted for stage‐specific predation rates by wolves and coyotes, compensatory mortality, and the potential release of coyote populations due to wolf control. Wolves were the main predators of ewes, coyotes were the main predators of lambs, and wolves were the main source of mortality for coyotes. Population models predicted that wolf control could increase sheep λ by 4% per year in the absence of mesopredator release. However, if wolf control released coyote populations, our models predicted that sheep λ could decrease by up to 3% per year. These results highlight the importance of integrating antagonistic interactions among predators into predator–prey models, because the net effect of predator management on shared prey can depend critically on the strength of mesopredator release.

Influence of increasing dryness, animal feeding strategy and human hunting on large ungulates abundance: A first approach in West Africa

Large ungulates as primary consumers consume variable proportions of herbaceous and woody plants. Recent climate changes modify the herbaceous/woody plant balance. To test their differential effects on ungulate species abundance, we compared large ungulate feeding strategies with climate change patterns, taking the game preferences of local people into account. We analyzed changes in population density of ten species of large ungulates between two census periods (1990–1993 and 1994–1998) in the Niokolo Koba National Park, Senegal. We calculated the cumulative precipitation deficit during the 1989–1997 period. Additionally, we conducted an extensive survey of local people’s game preferences. Results are: 1—in the period 1989–98 all but one year have been drier than the 1940–98 average; 2—this has a cumulative effect on the dryness of the land i.e. produces a water deficit; 3—this pattern favors the growth of woody plants over herbaceous ones; 4—this favors browsers over grazers; 5—grazers are generally preferred by hunters; 6—grazers are therefore disadvantaged both by the drier climate and by preferential hunting; 7—management in the National Park should focus on holding back bush encroachment and encouraging the growth of herbaceous plants.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems for Studying Spatial Abundance of Ungulates: Relevance to Spatial Epidemiology

Complex ecological and epidemiological systems require multidisciplinary and innovative research. Low cost unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) can provide information on the spatial pattern of hosts’ distribution and abundance, which is crucial as regards modelling the determinants of disease transmission and persistence on a fine spatial scale. In this context we have studied the spatial epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) in the ungulate community of Doñana National Park (South-western Spain) by modelling species host (red deer, fallow deer and cattle) abundance at fine spatial scale. The use of UAS high-resolution images has allowed us to collect data to model the environmental determinants of host abundance, and in a further step to evaluate their relationships with the spatial risk of TB throughout the ungulate community. We discuss the ecological, epidemiological and logistic conditions under which UAS may contribute to study the wildlife/livestock sanitary interface, where the spatial aggregation of hosts becomes crucial. These findings are relevant for planning and implementing research, fundamentally when managing disease in multi-host systems, and focusing on risky areas. Therefore, managers should prioritize the implementation of control strategies to reduce disease of conservation, economic and social relevance.

Short-term responses of wolf feeding habits to changes of wild and domestic ungulate abundance in Northern Italy

Long-term changes of wolf feeding habits have been recorded in several parts of its European range and were related to the increase of wild ungulate populations. An increased use of wild prey often is linked to a decrease of predation on livestock, and consequently it can reduce wolf–human conflict and make for easier predator conservation. We analysed wolf diet from scats collected from 2007 to 2012 in a 927.3-km2 area of the Northern Apennines (Northern Italy) to compare the present diet to that recorded in the late 1980s when the area was colonised by wolves, and to examine short-term changes of wolf feeding habits together with annual and seasonal variations of wild and domestic ungulate selection, possibly related to the increase of wild ungulate abundance. We calculated the availability proportions of wild ungulate species from the presence signs recorded on itineraries and those of livestock species from the data on farms of veterinary services. We identified 17 kinds of prey, pooled into six categories, of which wild ungulates (70%) and livestock (20%) were the most important. During the study period, we observed a reduction in the diet breadth of wolves, to a greater use of wild ungulates, depending on the increase in the availability of wild prey species. Significant seasonal variations were observed in the trophic habits of the wolf, but generally there was a wide use of wild ungulates, especially wild boars. Livestock was mainly used in summer, which corresponds to the period of greatest presence of domestic ungulates on the pastures. Considering the study period, a fast response of wolf feeding habits to the increase of wild ungulate species resulted, together with changes in selection patterns. The change in diet towards a greater use of wild ungulates is an important step in the recovery and conservation of the wolf.

Estimating sex-specific abundance in fawning areas of a high-density Columbian black-tailed deer population using fecal DNA

The recent development of fecal-genetic capture-mark-recapture (CMR) methods has increased the feasibility of estimating abundance of forest-dwelling ungulates that are difficult to survey using visual methods. Unless genetic markers differentiating sex are incorporated into such studies, however, genetic CMR approaches risk missing sex-specific differences in population trends. We developed a single-reaction genetic assay for sex and individual identification, including 10 microsatellites and an SRY marker, and applied it in the context of a post-fawning CMR study of Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) in forested habitat of coastal California during 2011 and 2012. We measured sex-specific abundance and sex ratios in high-quality summer habitats encompassing 4 distinct fawning areas. We detected a significant interaction between sex and year, indicating different trends in the abundance of males and females. We also detected a significant decline in abundance of females between years (P = 0.045), which agreed with independent telemetry-based estimates, and significant differences in female abundance among fawning areas (P = 0.020) but no significant differences in the abundance of males for either variable (F1–3,20 < 0.710, P > 0.410). When sex was not considered in the analysis, we found no significant differences in abundance between the 2 years, suggesting that differing trends between the 2 sexes obscured the female-specific patterns. We estimated average local (i.e., on the high-quality summer ranges) density ( D ^ ) for females at 41.0 (± 5.9) deer/km2 in 2011 and 29.1 (± 6.8) deer/km2 in 2012, and local density of males at 15.7 (± 3.0) deer/km2 across the 2 study years. Accordingly, sex ratios differed between years (95% CI = 3.0–4.2 F:M ratio in 2011, 2.0–2.3 F:M ratio in 2012). Incorporating sex and individual markers into a single assay provided a cost-effective means of applying CMR estimation based on fecal DNA to a high-density ungulate population in a forested ecosystem and emphasized the importance of explicitly modeling sex in abundance estimation. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

Effect of wild ungulate density on invertebrates in a Mediterranean ecosystem

In recent decades, the abundance and distribution of certain big game species, particularly red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), have increased in south central Spain as a result of hunting management strategies. The high density of these ungulate species may affect the abundance of epigeous invertebrates. We tested the relationships between big game abundance and biodiversity, taxon richness, the biomass of invertebrates and their frequency on nine hunting estates and in comparison to ungulate exclusion areas. Ungulate exclusion itself affected invertebrate richness, since lower values were found in the open plots, whereas the highest differences in invertebrate diversity between fenced and open plots was found in areas with high wild boar density. Where wild boar densities were high, the number of invertebrates decreased, while where they were low, red deer had a positive effect on invertebrate abundance. Fenced plots thus seemed to provide refuge for invertebrates, particularly where wild boar were abundant. This study supports the idea that the structure of fauna communities is damaged by high density populations of ungulates, probably due to decreased food availability owing to overgrazing, modified conditions of ecological microniches and direct predation. However, the effects depended on the group of invertebrates, since saprophytic species could benefit from high ungulate abundance. Our findings reflect the need to control ungulate population density under Mediterranean conditions in south–western Europe and to implement ungulate exclusion plots.

Prioritizing tiger conservation through landscape genetics and habitat linkages.

Even with global support for tiger (Panthera tigris) conservation their survival is threatened by poaching, habitat loss and isolation. Currently about 3,000 wild tigers persist in small fragmented populations within seven percent of their historic range. Identifying and securing habitat linkages that connect source populations for maintaining landscape-level gene flow is an important long-term conservation strategy for endangered carnivores. However, habitat corridors that link regional tiger populations are often lost to development projects due to lack of objective evidence on their importance. Here, we use individual based genetic analysis in combination with landscape permeability models to identify and prioritize movement corridors across seven tiger populations within the Central Indian Landscape. By using a panel of 11 microsatellites we identified 169 individual tigers from 587 scat and 17 tissue samples. We detected four genetic clusters within Central India with limited gene flow among three of them. Bayesian and likelihood analyses identified 17 tigers as having recent immigrant ancestry. Spatially explicit tiger occupancy obtained from extensive landscape-scale surveys across 76,913 km2 of forest habitat was found to be only 21,290 km2. After accounting for detection bias, the covariates that best explained tiger occupancy were large, remote, dense forest patches; large ungulate abundance, and low human footprint. We used tiger occupancy probability to parameterize habitat permeability for modeling habitat linkages using least-cost and circuit theory pathway analyses. Pairwise genetic differences (F ST) between populations were better explained by modeled linkage costs (r>0.5, p<0.05) compared to Euclidean distances, which was in consonance with observed habitat fragmentation. The results of our study highlight that many corridors may still be functional as there is evidence of contemporary migration. Conservation efforts should provide legal status to corridors, use smart green infrastructure to mitigate development impacts, and restore habitats where connectivity has been lost.

Using ungulate biomass to estimate abundance of wolves in British Columbia

Management of wolves (Canis lupus) in British Columbia, as with most other Canadian provinces, is conducted on a regional scale (38,557–252,776 km2), yet there is no standardized, cost-effective methodology for providing reliable estimates of wolf abundance at this scale. Therefore, we used periodic estimates of ungulate abundance and incorporated them into an ungulate biomass regression model to estimate wolf abundance on a regional and provincial (900,402 km2) scale over a 12-year period (2000–2011). In 2011, the provincial estimate was 8,688 (95% CI = 5898–11,760) wolves (7–13 wolves/1,000 km2), while regional wolf abundance estimates ranged from 149 (95% CI = 100–205) to 2,693 (95% CI = 1,818–3,608) with differences related to regional scale (km2) rather than wolf densities (4–15 wolves/1,000 km2). We suggest the ungulate biomass regression model is useful to estimate the abundance of wolves for management purposes when precise estimates are not required and wolf populations are not heavily exploited or recovering. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

The high abundance of wild ungulates in a Mediterranean region: is this compatible with the European rabbit?

The landscape in southern Iberia has, over the last four decades, altered as a result of the land abandonment, while the abundance of wild boarSus scrofaand red deerCervus elaphushas simultaneously increased, and some key prey species such as the European rabbitOryctolagus cuniculushave declined. In this work we explore: 1) the relationships between big game species (red deer and wild boar) and rabbit abundance, and 2) whether these relationships could have effects on food quality (total nitrogen available in the pasture and percentage of leguminosae) and food availability of (herbaceous cover). We therefore selected nine big game estates with a range of abundance as regards ungulates and similar Mediterranean habitat. Wild boar abundance was statistically negative in relation to rabbit abundance, while no significant statistical relationships between rabbit abundance and habitat structure and forage quality were evidenced. However, wild boar abundance, but not that of red deer, was negatively associated with leguminosae cover, and the percentage of surface rooted by wild boar was negatively associated with the percentage of herbaceous cover. Overall, our results suggest that the abundance of wild boar is negatively related to that of rabbits, and could have a negative effects on rabbit abundances by food competition as a result of: 1) a decrease in herbaceous coverage and leguminosae in the pasture and 2) an increase in the total percentage of soil disturbed as a result of rooting.

Differing influences of resource availability on the demographics and habitat selection of wildebeest compared with impala

Abstract:Although what drives the abundance and habitat selection of ungulates is a long-standing question, coherent datasets investigating the influences of rainfall, competition and fire on ungulates are unusual. Over 4 y we carried out extensive monthly road transects in Ithala Game Reserve, South Africa, to determine the demographics and habitat occupancy of the region's prevalent grazer (wildebeest) and mixed-feeder (impala). Habitat occupancy was determined using a GIS-based approach. We obtained 8742 sighting records, encompassing 8400 wildebeest and 10071 impala. Annual rainfall did not significantly correlate with population sizes of either species. Fecundity of wildebeest, but not of impala, showed a significant positive relationship with rainfall specifically over the perinatal period (November–December), whilst no significant relationships were found for either species between fecundity and rainfall over the previous year, 2 y, rut (February–April) or height of the dry season (June–August). Impala unexpectedly favoured browse habitats to grassland year round, probably consequent on competition for grass with wildebeest. Dry-season grass flushes attracted both wildebeest and impala. The study emphasized how rainfall, competition and fire regimes may affect differently grazers compared with mixed-feeders.

Wild Ungulate Distribution in the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve, Southwest China

Southeast Asia´s tropical forests harbour a unique diversity of wildlife but species and numbers are rapidly declining under current land use. To improve conservation strategies in these biodiversity hotspots, knowledge of animal species present and their distribution is crucial. We wanted to identify the ungulate community composition and distribution of a ‘Man and Biosphere’ reserve, the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve (NRWNNR), Yunnan, Southwest China. Using camera traps, transects, and spoor-plots we identified wild ungulate species and corresponding habitat properties. We compared two study sites of different protection status – the buffer and experimental zones – on an overall transect length of 32 km and analysed relationships between wildlife activity, forest vegetation structure, and human disturbance. We documented six ungulate species, all of which occurred in the buffer zone while only three species were found in the experimental zone. Wild boar sign density was about 10 times higher in the buffer than in the experimental zone. Overall wildlife sign density increased with distance away from human settlements and closer to the core zone. Hence, human disturbance strongly influenced wild ungulate abundance but the NRWNNR was found to host a diverse ungulate community, considering its small size and compared to other conservation areas in the region. The combination of various methods proved to be successful in identifying and locating forest wildlife. The NRWNNR, particularly the more strongly protected zones, could greatly contribute to future ecotourism activities in Yunnan if a strict preservation of buffer and core zones can be maintained.