Absolute Brightness Research Articles

Laser-produced X-ray sources

A formidable array of advanced laser systems are emerging that produce extreme states of light and matter. By irradiating solid and gaseous targets with lasers of increasing energy densities, new physical regimes of radiation effects are being explored for the first time in controlled laboratory settings. One result that is being accomplished or pursued using a variety of techniques, is the realization of novel sources of X-rays with unprecedented characteristics and light–matter interactions, the mechanisms of which are in many cases still being elucidated. Examples include the megajoule class of laser-produced plasmas designed in pursuit of alternative-energy and security applications and the petawatt class of lasers used for fast ignition and X-ray radiographic applications such as medical imaging and real-time imaging of plasma hydrodynamics. As these technologies mature, increased emphasis will need to be placed on advanced instrumentation and diagnostic metrology to characterize the spectra, time structure, and absolute brightness of X-rays emitted by these unconventional sources. Such customized and absolutely calibrated measurement tools will serve as an enabling technology that can help in assessing the overall system performance and progress, as well as identification of the underlying interaction mechanisms of interest to basic and applied strong-field and high-energy-density science.

Absolute brightness of fluorescent microspheres

The absolute brightness of fluorescent particles, such as dye-containing nano- and microspheres or quantum dots, is a critical design parameter for many applications relying on fluorescence detection. The absolute brightness, defined as the ratio of radiant intensity of emission to illumination intensity of excitation, of nile-red fluorescent microspheres with a 1 micrometre diameter is measured to be 4.2 +/- 1 x 10(-16) m(2)/sr, and the implications for the design of kinesin motor protein-powered "smart dust" devices and the remote detection of fluorescence are discussed.

SPECTRAL INDEX OF THE DIFFUSE RADIO BACKGROUND MEASURED FROM 100 TO 200 MHz

The mean absolute brightness temperature of the diffuse radio background was measured as a function of frequency in a continuous band between 100 and 200 MHz over an effective solid angle of ~π sr at high Galactic latitude. A spectral brightness temperature index of β = 2.5 ± 0.1 (αS = 0.5) was derived from the observations, where the error limits are 3σ and include estimates of the instrumental systematics. Zenith drift scans with central declination δ = –26.5° and spanning right ascensions 0 < α < 10 h yielded little variation in the mean spectral index. The mean absolute brightness temperature at ν = 150 MHz was found to reach a minimum of T = 237 ± 10 K at α = 2.5 h. Combining these measurements with those of Haslam et al. yields a spectral index of β = 2.52 ± 0.04 between 150 < ν < 408 MHz.

Spectral Study of the Galactic Ridge X-Ray Emission with Suzaku

Abstract In order to carry out a precise spectral study of the Galactic Ridge X-ray Emission using Suzaku, we have observed a typical Galactic plane field at $(l,b) =$ (28D46, $-$0D20), which is already deeply observed with Chandra, and known to be devoid of bright X-ray point sources. Thanks to the low background and high spectral resolution of Suzaku, we were able to resolve three narrow iron K-emission lines from low-ionized (6.41keV), helium-like (6.67keV), and hydrogenic ions (7.00keV). The cosmic-ray ion charge-exchange model or the non-equilibrium ionization plasma model are unlikely to explain these line features, since they require either broad emission lines or lines at intermediate ionization states. Collisional ionization equilibrium plasma is the likely origin for the 6.67keV and 7.00keV lines; however, the origin of the 6.41keV line, which is due to fluorescence from cold material, has not been elucidated. We could also precisely measure the absolute X-ray surface brightness in the direction of the Galactic plane. Excluding point sources brighter than $\sim$2 $\times 10^{-13}$ergs$^{-1}$cm$^{-2}$ (2-10keV), the total surface brightness on the Galactic plane is $\sim$6.1 $\times 10^{-11}$ergs$^{-1}$cm$^{-2}$deg$^{-2}$ (2-10keV), including the contribution of the cosmic X-ray background, which is estimated to be $\sim$1.3$\times 10^{-11}$ergs$^{-1}$cm$^{-2}$deg$^{-2}$.

FSR 0190: another old distant Galactic cluster

Abstract We are conducting a large programme to classify newly discovered Milky Way star cluster candidates from Froebrich et al. Here we present near-infrared follow-up observations of FSR 0190 (, J2000). The cluster is situated close to the Galactic plane . It shows a circular shape, and a relatively large number of core helium burning stars – which clearly distinguishes the cluster from the rich field – but no centrally condensed star density profile. We derive an age of more than 7 Gyr, a Galactocentric distance of 10.5 kpc, a distance of 10 kpc from the Sun, and an extinction of AK= 0.8 mag. The estimated mass is at least of the order of 105 M⊙, and the absolute brightness is MV≤−4.7 mag; both are rather typical properties for Palomar-type globular clusters.

The properties of Jovian Trojan asteroids listed in SDSS Moving Object Catalogue 3

We analyse 1187 observations of about 860 unique candidate Jovian Trojan asteroids listed in the 3rd release of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) Moving Object Catalogue. The sample is complete at the faint end to r = 21.2 mag (apparent brightness) and H = 13.8 (absolute brightness, approximately corresponding to 10 km diameter). A subset of 297 detections of previously known Trojans were used to design and optimize a selection method based on observed angular velocity that resulted in the remaining objects. Using a sample of objects with known orbits, we estimate that the candidate sample contamination is about 3 per cent. The well-controlled selection effects, the sample size, depth and accurate five-band UV‐ IR photometry enabled several new findings and the placement of older results on a firmer statistical footing. We find that there are significantly more asteroids in the leading swarm (L4) than in the trailing swarm (L5): N(L4)/N(L5) = 1.6 ± 0.1, independently of limiting object’s size. The overall counts normalization suggests that there are about as many Jovians Trojans as there are main-belt asteroids down to the same size limit, in agreement with earlier estimates. We find that Trojan asteroids have a remarkably narrow colour distribution (root mean scatter of only ∼0.05 mag) that is significantly different from the colour distribution of the main-belt asteroids. The colour of Trojan asteroids is correlated with their orbital inclination, in a similar way for both swarms, but appears uncorrelated with the object’s size. We extrapolate the results presented here and estimate that the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope will determine orbits, accurate colours and measure light curves in six photometric bandpasses for about 100 000 Jovian Trojan asteroids.

Excitation conditions in the Orion molecular cloud obtained from observations of ortho- and para-lines of H$_ {\sf 2}$

Aims. We seek to study excitation mechanisms in the inner region of the Orion Molecular Cloud by comparing observations of ortho- and para-lines of H 2 with theoretical models of slow shocks and photodissociation regions. Methods. K -band observations of H 2 obtained with the Canada-France-Hawaii 3.6 m telescope using the PUEO adaptive optics system are reported. Data were centered on the Becklin-Neugebauer object northwest of the Trapezium stars. Narrow-band filters were used to isolate emission from the $v=1$–0 S(1) ortho- and $v=1$–0 S(0) para-lines at a spatial resolution of 0$\farcs$45 (~200 AU). We are able to combine their intensity to obtain the column densities of rovibrationally excited ortho and para H 2 levels of the molecular gas at high spatial resolution. Results. The resulting line ratios show variations between 2 and the statistical equilibrium value of 6. We find 4 different classes of emission, characterised by the ratio of the $v=1$–0 S(1) and S(0) line brightness and the absolute line brightness. Shock models are used to estimate the physical properties of pre-shock density and shock velocity for these 4 classes. We find that the pre-shock density is in the range of 10 5 –10 7 cm -3 and shock velocities lie between 10 and 40 km s -1 . Studies of individual objects, using additional constraints of shock velocity and width, allow quite precise physical conditions to be specified in three prominent bow shocks, one with a shock speed of $18\pm2$ km s -1 and pre-shock density $1\pm0.5\times10^6$ cm -3 (3 σ ) and two with shock speeds of ~$36\pm2$ km s -1 and pre-shock densities of $7.5\pm2.5\times10^4$ cm -3 .

AnXMM‐NewtonSearch for X‐Ray Emission from the Microlensing Event MACHO‐96‐BLG‐5

MACHO-96-BLG-5 was a microlensing event observed toward the bulge of the Galaxy with an exceptionally long duration of ~970 days. The microlensing parallax fit parameters were used to estimate a lens mass M = 6 M☉, corresponding to a distance d in the range 0.5-2 kpc. The upper limit on the absolute brightness for main-sequence stars of the same mass is less than 1 L☉, so the lens is a good black hole candidate. Such a black hole would accrete from the interstellar medium, thereby emitting in the X-ray band. Here we report the analysis of a deep XMM-Newton observation toward the MACHO-96-BLG-5 lens position. Only an upper limit (99.8% confidence level) to the X-ray flux from the lens position, 9.10 × 10-15 to 1.45 × 10-14 ergs cm-2 s-1 in the 0.2-10 keV energy band, is obtained, allowing us to constrain the putative black hole's accretion parameters.

The fading problem and the population of the Oort cloud

Context. The discovery efficiency of the dynamically new comets has been assumed to be approximately the same as that of all long-period (LP) comets when estimating the population of the Oort cloud. On the other hand, studies of the so-called fading problem have implied a strong difference in the discovery efficiencies of both new and old comets. Some authors have attempted to explain this discrepancy by suggesting that old comets disappeared due to the extinction or disintegration of their nuclei. Aims. We attempt to answer the question of whether the absolute brightness of old comets steeply decreases in time or whether their nuclei become extinct, dormant, or disintegrated. Moreover, we analyse the impact of the highly different discovery efficiencies on an estimate of the Oort-cloud population. Methods. The dominance of the fading over the extinction, dormant-phase, or disintegration is demonstrated with the help of the distributions of the reciprocal semi-major axes of the original orbits of the LP comets and a more moderate decrease in discoveries of new comets with increasing perihelion distance. The comet discoveries within the LINEAR sky survey are also used to support our conclusion. Results. The demonstrated dominance of the fading implies the relatively higher discovery efficiency of new comets. Its ignorance causes an overestimation of the actual intrinsic flux of new comets through the zone of visibility compared to the corresponding intrinsic flux of all LP comets. This overestimate is also documented by a significantly smaller amount of new comets with perihelia $q \loa 3\,$AU discovered within the LINEAR. Conclusions. The actual intrinsic flux of new comets must be about one order of magnitude lower than has been derived before. Its reduction implies a one-order-of-magnitude less numerous population for the Oort cloud. Moreover, such the reduction also solves (or, at least, weakens) the problem of too high a mass of the comet cloud, as well as the problem of too numerous a population of predicted Halley-type objects or too high a space density of interstellar comets.

Bivariate galaxy luminosity functions in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey

Bivariate luminosity functions (LFs) are computed for galaxies in the New York Value-Added Galaxy Catalogue, based on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 4. The galaxy properties investigated are the morphological type, inverse concentration index, Sersic index, absolute effective surface brightness, reference frame colours, absolute radius, eClass spectral type, stellar mass and galaxy environment. The morphological sample is flux-limited to galaxies with r < 15.9 and consists of 37,047 classifications to an RMS accuracy of +/- half a class in the sequence E, S0, Sa, Sb, Sc, Sd, Im. These were assigned by an artificial neural network, based on a training set of 645 eyeball classifications. The other samples use r < 17.77 with a median redshift of z ~ 0.08, and a limiting redshift of z < 0.15 to minimize the effects of evolution. Other cuts, for example in axis ratio, are made to minimize biases. A wealth of detail is seen, with clear variations between the LFs according to absolute magnitude and the second parameter. They are consistent with an early type, bright, concentrated, red population and a late type, faint, less concentrated, blue, star forming population. This bimodality suggests two major underlying physical processes, which in agreement with previous authors we hypothesize to be merger and accretion, associated with the properties of bulges and discs respectively. The bivariate luminosity-surface brightness distribution is fit with the Choloniewski function (a Schechter function in absolute magnitude and Gaussian in surface brightness). The fit is found to be poor, as might be expected if there are two underlying processes.

Toward a Cosmological Hubble Diagram for Type II‐P Supernovae

We present the first high-redshift Hubble diagram for Type II-P supernovae (SNe II-P) based on five events at redshift up to z ~ 0.3. This diagram was constructed using photometry from the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Supernova Legacy Survey and absorption-line spectroscopy from the Keck Observatory. The method used to measure distances to these supernovae is based on recent work by Hamuy & Pinto and exploits a correlation between the absolute brightness of SNe II-P and the expansion velocities derived from the minimum of the Fe II λ 5169 P Cygni feature observed during the plateau phases. We present three refinements to this method that significantly improve the practicality of measuring the distances of SNe II-P at cosmologically interesting redshifts. These are an extinction correction measurement based on the V-I colors at day 50, a cross-correlation measurement for the expansion velocity, and the ability to extrapolate such velocities accurately over almost the entire plateau phase. We apply this revised method to our data set of high-redshift SNe II-P and find that the resulting Hubble diagram has a scatter of only 0.26 mag, thus demonstrating the feasibility of measuring the expansion history, with present facilities, using a method independent of that based on supernovae of Type Ia.

The Central Regions of M31 in the 3-5 μm Wavelength Region

Images obtained with NIRI on the Gemini North telescope are used to investigate the photometric properties of the central regions of M31 in the 3-5 μm wavelength range. The light distribution in the central arcsecond differs from what is seen in the near-infrared in the sense that the difference in peak brightness between P1 and P2 is larger in M' than in K'; no obvious signature of P3 is detected in M'. These results can be explained if there is a source of emission that contributes ~20% of the peak M' light of P1, has an effective temperature of no more than a few hundred K, and is located between P1 and P2. Based on the red K - M' color of this source, it is suggested that the emission originates in a circumstellar dust shell surrounding a single bright asymptotic giant branch (AGB) star. Tests of this hypothesis are described. A bright source that is ~8'' from the center of the galaxy is also detected in M'. This object has red colors and an absolute brightness in M' that is similar to the most highly evolved AGB stars in the solar neighborhood; hence, it is likely to be a very evolved AGB star embedded in a circumstellar envelope. The K-band brightness of this star is close to the peak expected for AGB evolution, and an age of only a few hundred million years is estimated, which is comparable to that of the P3 star cluster. Finally, using high angular resolution near-infrared adaptive optics images as a guide, a sample of unblended AGB stars outside of the central few arcseconds is defined in L'. The (L', K - L') color-magnitude diagram of these sources shows a dominant AGB population with a peak L' brightness and a range of K - L' colors that are similar to those of the most luminous M giants in the Galactic bulge.

Radiometric and spectral validation of Atmospheric Infrared Sounder observations with the aircraft‐based Scanning High‐Resolution Interferometer Sounder

The ability to accurately validate high–spectral resolution infrared radiance measurements from space using comparisons with a high‐altitude aircraft spectrometer has been successfully demonstrated. The demonstration is based on a 21 November 2002 underflight of the AIRS on the NASA Aqua spacecraft by the Scanning‐HIS on the NASA ER‐2 high‐altitude aircraft. A comparison technique which accounts for the different viewing geometries and spectral characteristics of the two sensors is introduced, and accurate comparisons are made for AIRS channels throughout the infrared spectrum. Resulting brightness temperature differences are found to be 0.2 K or less for most channels. Both the AIRS and the Scanning‐HIS calibrations are expected to be very accurate (formal 3‐sigma estimates are better than 1 K absolute brightness temperature for a wide range of scene temperatures), because high spectral resolution offers inherent advantages for absolute calibration and because they make use of high‐emissivity cavity blackbodies as onboard radiometric references. AIRS also has the added advantage of a cold space view, and the Scanning‐HIS calibration has recently benefited from the availability of a zenith view from high‐altitude flights. Aircraft comparisons of this type provide a mechanism for periodically testing the absolute calibration of spacecraft instruments with instrumentation for which the calibration can be carefully maintained on the ground. This capability is especially valuable for assuring the long‐term consistency and accuracy of climate observations, including those from the NASA EOS spacecraft (Terra, Aqua and Aura) and the new complement of NPOESS operational instruments. The validation role for accurately calibrated aircraft spectrometers also includes application to broadband instruments and linking the calibrations of similar instruments on different spacecraft. It is expected that aircraft flights of the Scanning‐HIS and its close cousin the NPOESS Airborne Sounder Test Bed (NAST) will be used to check the long‐term stability of AIRS and the NPOESS operational follow‐on sounder, the Cross‐track Infrared Sounder (CrIS), over the life of the missions.

Polarization properties of the June 21, 2001 solar corona

Five series of coronal images have been obtained by V.Kulijanishvili during the total solar eclipse of the June 21, 2001, in Zambia, Lusaka. A photographic mirror-lens coronagraph- polarimeter (D=100 mm, F=1000 mm) was used. The absolute brightness, polarization and direction of polarization of the inner corona were measured. Standard techniques are used for the separation of the F- and K-coronas and for determination of coronal electron densities and temperatures. The background skylight polarization and intensity are calculated.

The low‐mass companion of GQ Lup

AbstractUsing NACO on the VLT in the imaging mode we have detected an object at a distance of only 0.7 arcsec from GQ Lup. The object turns out to be co‐moving. We have taken two K‐band spectra with a resolution of λ /Δλ = 700. In here, we analyze the spectra in detail. We show that the shape of spectrum is not spoiled by differences in the Strehl ratio in the blue and in the red part, as well as differential refraction. We reanalyze the spectra and derive the spectral type of the companion using classical methods. We find that the object has a spectral type between M9V and L4V, which corresponds to a T eff between 1600 and 2500 K. Using GAIA‐dusty models, we find that the spectral type derivation is robust against different log(g )‐values. The T eff derived from the models is again in the range between 1800 and 2400 K. While the models reproduce nicely the general shape of the spectrum, the 12CO lines in the spectrum have about half the depth as those in the model. We speculate that this difference might be caused by veiling, like in other objects of similar age, and spectral class. We also find that the absolute brightness of the companion matches that of other low‐mass free‐floating objects of similar age and spectral type. A comparison with the objects in USco observed by Mohanty et al. (2004b) shows that the companion of GQ Lup has a lower mass than any of these, as it is of later spectral type, and younger. The same is as true, for the companion of AB Pic. To have a first estimate of the mass of the object we compare the derived T eff and luminosity with those calculated from evolutionary tracks. We also point out that future instruments, like NAHUAL, will finally allow us to derive the masses of such objects more precisely. (© 2005 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH &amp; Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Telescope and site requirements for the next generation of deep galaxy surveys

A key pursuit of 10-meter-class optical-infrared telescopes is to use deep imaging and spectroscopic surveys to track the evolution of galaxy structure. Future telescopes will continue this quest back to the epoch of the first galaxies, reaching ever fainter structures at ever higher redshifts. Apertures of 20, 30, 50, and 100 meters equipped with the latest in adaptive optics will look out from the world's foremost observing sites, and incrementally improve on point-source sensitivity. But how will they compare for studying extended structures? Scientific avenues that can be pursued with poorer spatial resolution, but require low backgrounds - for example, tracing the formation history of bulges - might allow for tradeoffs between aperture, site, and cost. To explore this parameter space I use a published model of average seeing at any site, develop a simple telescope performance and cost model, and simulate resultant galaxy images over a wide range of absolute brightness, size, bulge fraction, inclination, and redshift. I present a graphical interface to the model which allows side-by-side visual comparison of a given galaxy for any two observatories. This approach is intuitive and flexible, although probably not well suited for detailed analysis of a particular telescope. I compare observatory cost against the relative accuracy of measured galaxy bulge-to-total ratio, and comment on telescope and site requirements.

AHSTStudy of the Stellar Populations in the Cometary Dwarf Irregular Galaxy NGC 2366

We present V and I photometry of the resolved stars in the cometary dwarf irregular galaxy NGC 2366, using Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 images obtained with the Hubble Space Telescope. The resulting color-magnitude diagram reaches down to I ~ 26.0 mag. It reveals not only a young population of blue main-sequence stars (age 30 Myr) but also an intermediate-age population of blue and red supergiants (20 Myr age 100 Myr) and older evolved populations of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars (age 100 Myr) and red giant branch (RGB) stars (age 1 Gyr). The measured magnitude I = 23.65 ± 0.10 mag of the RGB tip results in a distance modulus m - M = 27.67 ± 0.10, which corresponds to a distance of 3.42 ± 0.15 Mpc, in agreement with previous distance determinations. The youngest stars are associated with the bright complex of H II regions NGC 2363 (=Mrk 71) in the southwest extremity of the galaxy. As a consequence of the diffusion and relaxation processes of stellar ensembles, the older the stellar population is, the smoother and more extended is its spatial distribution. An underlying population of older stars is found throughout the body of NGC 2366. The most notable feature of this older population is the presence of numerous relatively bright AGB stars. The number ratio of AGB to RGB stars and the average absolute brightness of AGB stars in NGC 2366 are appreciably higher than in the BCD VII Zw 403, indicating a younger age of the AGB stars in NGC 2366. In addition to the present burst of age 100 Myr, there has been strong star formation activity in the past of NGC 2366, from ~100 Myr to 3 Gyr ago.

The Dependence of Galaxy Shape on Luminosity and Surface Brightness Profile

For a sample of 96,951 galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 3, we study the distribution of apparent axis ratios as a function of r-band absolute magnitude and surface brightness profile type. We use the parameter fracDeV to quantify the profile type (fracDeV = 1 for a de Vaucouleurs profile; fracDeV = 0 for an exponential profile). When the apparent axis ratio q_{am} is estimated from the moments of the light distribution, the roundest galaxies are very bright (M_r \sim -23) de Vaucouleurs galaxies and the flattest are modestly bright (M_r \sim -18) exponential galaxies. When the apparent axis ratio q_{25} is estimated from the axis ratio of the 25 mag/arcsec^2 isophote, we find that de Vaucouleurs galaxies are flatter than exponential galaxies of the same absolute magnitude. For a given surface brightness profile type, very bright galaxies are rounder, on average, than fainter galaxies. We deconvolve the distributions of apparent axis ratios to find the distribution of the intrinsic short-to-long axis ratio gamma, assuming constant triaxiality T. For all profile types and luminosities, the distribution of apparent axis ratios is inconsistent with a population of oblate spheroids, but is usually consistent with a population of prolate spheroids. Bright galaxies with a de Vaucouleurs profile (M_r 0.9) have a distribution of q_{am} that is consistent with triaxiality in the range 0.4 < T < 0.8, with mean intrinsic axis ratio 0.66 < gamma < 0.69. The fainter de Vaucouleurs galaxies are best fit with prolate spheroids (T = 1) with mean axis ratio gamma = 0.51.

Microwave remote sensing of Jupiter's atmosphere from an orbiting spacecraft

Microwave remote sounding from a spacecraft flying by or in orbit around Jupiter offers new possibilities for retrieving important and presently poorly understood properties of its atmosphere. In particular, we show that precise measurements of relative brightness temperature as a function of off-nadir emission angles, combined with absolute brightness temperature measurements, can allow us to determine the global abundances of water and ammonia and study the dynamics and deep circulations of the atmosphere in the altitude range from the ammonia cloud region to depths greater than 30 bars in a manner which would not be achievable with ground-based telescopes.

The 2–8 keV cosmic X-ray background spectrum as observed with XMM-Newton

We have measured the spectrum of the Cosmic X-ray Background (CXB) in the 2-8 keV range with the high throughput EPIC/MOS instrument onboard XMM-Newton. A large sample of high galactic latitude observations was used, covering a total solid angle of 5.5 square degrees. Our study is based on a very careful characterization and subtraction of the instrumental background, which is crucial for a robust measurement of the faintest diffuse source of the X-ray sky. The CXB spectrum is consistent with a power law having a photon index Gamma=1.41+/-0.06 and a normalization of 2.46+/-0.09 photons/(cm^2 s sr keV) at 3 keV (~11.6 photons/(cm^2 s sr keV) at 1 keV), corresponding to a 2-10 keV flux of (2.24+/-0.16)x10^(-11) erg/(cm^2 s deg) (90% confidence level, including the absolute flux calibration uncertainty). Our results are in excellent agreement with two of the most recent CXB measurements, performed with BeppoSAX LECS/MECS data (Vecchi et al. 1999) and with an independent analysis of XMM-Newton EPIC/MOS data (Lumb et al. 2002), providing a very strong constrain to the absolute sky surface brightness in this energy range, so far affected by a ~40% uncertainty. Our measurement immediately implies that the fraction of CXB resolved by the recent deep X-ray observations in the 2-10 keV band is of 80+/-7% (1sigma), suggesting the existence of a new population of faint sources, largely undetected within the current sensitivity limits of the deepest X-ray surveys.