Absence Of Permafrost Research Articles

Permafrost Effect on the Spatial Distribution of CO2 Emission in the North of Western Siberia (Russia)

The landscapes in the discontinuous permafrost area of Western Siberia are unique objects for assessing the direct and indirect impact of permafrost on greenhouse gas fluxes. The aim of this study was to identify the influence of permafrost on the CO2 emission at the landscape and local levels. The CO2 emission from the soil surface with the removed vegetation cover was measured by the closed chamber method, with simultaneous measurements of topsoil temperature and moisture and thawing depth in forest, palsa, and bog ecosystems in August 2022. The CO2 emissions from the soils of the forest ecosystems averaged 485 mg CO2 m−2 h−1 and was 3–3.5 times higher than those from the peat soils of the palsa mound and adjacent bog (on average, 150 mg CO2 m−2 h−1). The high CO2 emission in the forest was due to the mild soil temperature regime, high root biomass, and good water–air permeability of soils in the absence of permafrost. A considerable warming of bog soils, and the redistribution of CO2 between the elevated palsa and the bog depression with water flows above the permafrost table, equalized the values of CO2 emissions from the palsa and bog soils. Soil moisture was a significant factor of the spatial variability in the CO2 emission at all levels. The temperature affected the CO2 emission only at the sites with a shallow thawing depth.

Emission of Methane and Carbon Dioxide during Soil Freezing without Permafrost

Research on methane and carbon dioxide emissions mainly focuses on industrial emissions, cultivated land, and wetlands, while few studies have studied freezing-related emissions. This paper presents field experiments conducted during soil freezing to measure carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in the air, near the soil surface, and in the soil. In addition, the influence of precipitation, snowfall, air temperature, and depth of freezing on gas emissions was analyzed. We observed increased concentrations of methane and carbon dioxide in soil and air at soil freezing and snow cover growth. For the first time, an increase in gas flux during soil freezing was found in the absence of permafrost.

Opposing Effects of Climate and Permafrost Thaw on CH4 and CO2 Emissions From Northern Lakes

AbstractSmall, organic‐rich lakes are important sources of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere, yet the sensitivity of emissions to climate warming is poorly constrained and potentially influenced by permafrost thaw. Here, we monitored emissions from 20 peatland lakes across a 1,600 km permafrost transect in boreal western Canada. Contrary to expectations, we observed a shift from source to sink of CO2 for lakes warmer regions, driven by greater primary productivity associated with greater hydrological connectivity to lakes and nutrient availability in the absence of permafrost. Conversely, an 8‐fold increase in CH4 emissions in warmer regions was associated with water temperature and shifts in microbial communities and dominant anaerobic processes. Our results suggest that the net radiative forcing from altered greenhouse gas emissions of northern peatland lakes this century will be dominated by increasing CH4 emissions and only partially offset by reduced CO2 emissions.

Rock glacier inventory, permafrost probability distribution modeling and associated hazards in the Hunza River Basin, Western Karakoram, Pakistan

The destabilization of rock glaciers and permafrost variations is of great importance to the safety of the population and infrastructure in the Karakoram region because of their effects on land stability and river obstructions. In this study, we compiled the first complete rock glacier inventory for the Hunza Basin, western Karakoram, of 616 rock glaciers with an area of 194 km2 between 2800 and 5700 m a.s.l. We categorized the rock glaciers as intact or relict, and their distributions and destabilization were further analyzed and used along with in situ climate and elevation dataset to model the permafrost probability distribution. The modeled areas where the permafrost zonation index (PZI) is 0.5–1.00 indicate that permafrost occurs over 85% of the catchment area and lies above 3525 m a.s.l., which closely matches the zero-degree isotherm of 3800 m a.s.l. Based on the sensitivity analysis of the independent variables, elevation is the most sensitive variable, followed by net radiation, for predicting the probabilities of the presence and absence of permafrost. The model distributions are quite precise, with median posterior areas under the curve of 0.98 and 0.96 for model training and testing, respectively. We analyzed the rock glacier destabilization for 68 rock glaciers that interacted with river channels, of which 50 blocked or diverted river channels. Destabilized rock glaciers can be closely linked to the 0 °C isotherm between 3400 and 4600 m a.s.l. The significant damage caused by periodic floods from the subsequent blockage of river channels by landslides can be attributed to variations in permafrost. Which demolished infrastructure, including a hydropower plant, suspension bridge and water supply system in Hassan-abad catchment. Quantification of rock glacier dynamics and permafrost in the region can further improve policies related to the reduction in disaster risk and mitigation of associated hazards.

Shrubs and Degraded Permafrost Pave the Way for Tree Establishment in Subarctic Peatlands

Arctic and subarctic ecosystems are changing rapidly in species composition and functioning as they warm twice as fast as the global average. It has been suggested that tree-less boreal landscapes may shift abruptly to tree-dominated states as climate warms. Yet, we insufficiently understand the conditions and mechanisms underlying tree establishment in the subarctic and arctic regions to anticipate how climate change may further affect ecosystem structure and functioning. We conducted a field experiment to assess the role of permafrost presence, micro-topography and shrub canopy on tree establishment in almost tree-less subarctic peatlands of northern Finland. We introduced seeds and seedlings of four tree-line species and monitored seedling survival and environmental conditions for six growing seasons. Our results show that once seedlings have emerged, the absence of permafrost can enhance early tree seedling survival, but shrub cover is the most important driver of subsequent tree seedling survival in subarctic peatlands. Tree seedling survival was twice as high under an intact shrub canopy than in open conditions after shrub canopy removal. Under unclipped control conditions, seedling survival was positively associated with dense shrub canopies for half of the tree species studied. These strong positive interactions between shrubs and trees may facilitate the transition from today’s treeless subarctic landscapes towards tree-dominated states. Our results suggest that climate warming may accelerate this vegetation shift as permafrost is lost, and shrubs further expand across the subarctic.

Ground temperature and snow depth variability within a subarctic peat plateau landscape

AbstractSubarctic permafrost peatlands cover extensive areas and store large amounts of soil organic carbon that can be remobilized as active layer deepening and thermokarst formation increase in a future warmer climate. Better knowledge of ground thermal variability within these ecosystems is important for understanding future landscape development and permafrost carbon feedbacks. In a peat plateau complex in Tavvavuoma, northern Sweden, ground temperatures and snow depth have been monitored in six different landscape units: on a peat plateau, in a depression within a peat plateau, along a peat plateau edge (close to a thermokarst lake), at a thermokarst lake shoreline, in a thermokarst lake and in a fen. Permafrost is present in all three peat plateau landscape units, and mean annual ground temperature (MAGT) in the central parts of the peat plateau is −0.3°C at 2 m depth. In the three low‐lying wetter or saturated landscape units (along the thermokarst lake shoreline, in the lake and the fen) taliks are present and MAGT at 1 m depth is 1.0–2.7°C. Topographical differences between the elevated and low‐lying units affect both local snow depth and soil moisture, and are important for ground thermal patterns in this landscape. Permafrost exists in landscape units with a shallow mean December–April snow depth (<20 cm) whereas snow depths >40 cm mostly result in absence of permafrost.

Soil moisture and texture primarily control the soil nutrient stoichiometry across the Tibetan grassland

Soil nutrient stoichiometry and its environmental controllers play vital roles in understanding soil-plant interaction and nutrient cycling under a changing environment, while they remain poorly understood in alpine grassland due to lack of systematic field investigations. We examined the patterns and controls of soil nutrients stoichiometry for the top 10cm soils across the Tibetan ecosystems. Soil nutrient stoichiometry varied substantially among vegetation types. Alpine swamp meadow had larger topsoil C:N, C:P, N:P, and C:K ratios compared to the alpine meadow, alpine steppe, and alpine desert. In addition, the presence or absence of permafrost did not significantly impact soil nutrient stoichiometry in Tibetan grassland. Moreover, clay and silt contents explained approximately 32.5% of the total variation in soil C:N ratio. Climate, topography, soil properties, and vegetation combined to explain 10.3–13.2% for the stoichiometry of soil C:P, N:P, and C:K. Furthermore, soil C and N were weakly related to P and K in alpine grassland. These results indicated that the nutrient limitation in alpine ecosystem might shifts from N-limited to P-limited or K-limited due to the increase of N deposition and decrease of soil P and K contents under the changing climate conditions and weathering stages. Finally, we suggested that soil moisture and mud content could be good predictors of topsoil nutrient stoichiometry in Tibetan grassland.

New observations indicate the possible presence of permafrost in North Africa (Djebel Toubkal, High Atlas, Morocco)

Abstract. Relict and present-day periglacial features have been reported in the literature for the upper reaches of the High Atlas mountains, which is the highest range in North Africa (Djebel Toubkal – 4167 m a.s.l.). A lobate feature in the Irhzer Ikhibi south at 3800 m a.s.l. has been previously interpreted as an active rock glacier, but no measurements of ground or air temperatures are known to exist for the area. In order to assess the possible presence of permafrost, we analyse data from June 2015 to June 2016 from two air temperature measurement sites at 2370 and 3210 m a.s.l. and from four ground surface temperature (GST) sites at 3220, 3815, 3980 and 4160 m a.s.l. to characterize conditions along an altitudinal gradient along the Oued Ihghyghaye valley to the summit of the Djebel Toubkal. GSTs were collected at 1 h intervals, and the presence of snow cover at the monitoring sites was validated using Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 imagery. Two field visits allowed for logger installation and collection and for assessing the geomorphological features in the area. The results show that snow plays a major role on the thermal regime of the shallow ground, inducing important spatial variability. The lowest site at 3220 m had a thermal regime characterized by frequent freeze–thaw cycles during the cold season but with few days of snow. When snow settled, the ground surface remained isothermal at 0 °C , indicating the absence of permafrost. The highest sites at 3980 and 4160 m a.s.l. showed very frequent freeze–thaw cycles and a small influence of the snow cover on GST, reflecting the lack of snow accumulation due to the wind-exposed settings on a ridge and on the summit plateau. The site located at 3815 m in the Irhzer Ikhibi south valley had a cold, stable thermal regime with GST varying from −4.5 to −6 °C from December to March, under a continuous snow cover. The site's location in a concave setting favours wind-driven snow accumulation and lower incoming solar radiation due to the shading effect of a ridge, inducing the conservation of a thick snow pack. The stable and low GSTs are interpreted as a strong indicator of the probable presence of permafrost at this site, which is an interpretation supported by the presence of lobate and arcuate features in the talus deposits. We present first results and further observations using geophysics, and borehole measurements are foreseen. This is the first time that probable permafrost has been reported from temperature observations in the mountains of North Africa.

Soil formation and weathering in a permafrost environment of the Swiss Alps: a multi‐parameter and non‐steady‐state approach

AbstractSpatially discontinuous permafrost conditions frequently occur in the European Alps. How soils under such conditions have evolved and how they may react to climate warming is largely unknown. This study focuses on the comparison of nearby soils that are characterised by the presence or absence of permafrost (active‐layer thickness: 2–3 m) in the alpine (tundra) and subalpine (forest) range of the Eastern Swiss Alps using a multi‐method (geochemical and mineralogical) approach. Moreover, a new non‐steady‐state concept was applied to determine rates of chemical weathering, soil erosion, soil formation, soil denudation, and soil production. Long‐term chemical weathering rates, soil formation and erosion rates were assessed by using immobile elements, fine‐earth stocks and meteoric 10Be. In addition, the weathering index (K + Ca)/Ti, the amount of Fe‐ and Al‐oxyhydroxides and clay minerals characteristics were considered. All methods indicated that the differences between permafrost‐affected and non‐permafrost‐affected soils were small. Furthermore, the soils did not uniformly differ in their weathering behaviour. A tendency towards less intense weathering in soils that were affected by permafrost was noted: at most sites, weathering rates, the proportion of oxyhydroxides and the weathering stage of clay minerals were lower in permafrost soils. In part, erosion rates were higher at the permafrost sites and accounted for 79–97% of the denudation rates. In general, soil formation rates (8.8–86.7 t/km2/yr) were in the expected range for Alpine soils. Independent of permafrost conditions, it seems that the local microenvironment (particularly vegetation and subsequently soil organic matter) has strongly influenced denudation rates. As the climate has varied since the beginning of soil evolution, the conditions for soil formation and weathering were not stable over time. Soil evolution in high Alpine settings is complex owing to, among others, spatio‐temporal variations of permafrost conditions and thus climate. This makes predictions of future behaviour very difficult. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Degrading permafrost mapped with electrical resistivity tomography, airborne imagery and LiDAR, and seasonal thaw measurements

Accurate identification of the relationships between permafrost extent and landscape patterns can help to develop airborne geophysical or remote sensing tools to map permafrost in remote locations or across large areas. These tools will be particularly applicable in discontinuous permafrost where climate warming or disturbances such as human development or fire can lead to rapid permafrost degradation. We have linked field-based geophysical, point-scale, and imagery surveying measurements to map permafrost at five fire scars (1930, 1975, 1988, 2001, and 2010) on the Tanana Flats in central Alaska. Ground-based elevation surveys, seasonal thaw-depth profiles, and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) measurements were combined with airborne imagery and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) to identify relationships between permafrost geomorphology and elapsed time since fire disturbance. ERT proved to be a robust technique for mapping the presence or absence of permafrost because of the marked difference in resistivity values for frozen versus unfrozen material. There was no clear relationship between elapsed time since fire and permafrost extent at our sites. However, we have found that the transition zone boundaries between permafrost soils and unfrozen soils in the collapse-scar bogs at our sites had complex and unpredictable morphologies. This result suggested that attempts to quantify the presence or absence of permafrost using aerial measurements alone could lead to incomplete results. Taken in total, the results from our study indicated that although ground-based ERT measurements were the most rapid means of mapping permafrost, we were still limited in being able to apply airborne surveying measurements at the landscape scale toward accurately estimating permafrost extent.

Near surface thermal characteristics of alpine steep rockwalls in the Retezat Mountains

The characteristics of the near surface thermal regime of two rockwalls with different aspect in the Retezat Mountains were investigated using two miniature thermistors. Three one-year (2012-2013; 2013-2014 and 2014-2015) rock surface temperature time series were available for the north facing rockwall, whereas only two seasons were analyzed for the south facing rockwall. The mean annual rock surface temperature (MARST) values were with 1.5-2°C colder on the northern rockwall compared with the southern steep bedrock face. Due to long daily exposure to sunshine, the south facing rockwall experienced more diurnal freeze-thaw cycles during the cold season compared to the north facing rockwall. Overall, the thermistor with a southern aspect recorded 40 and 55 more freeze-thaw cycles than the northern one. A greater number of effective freeze-thaw cycles were measured on the south facing rockwall. The maximum daily amplitude on the southern rockwall is three times higher than on the north-facing location (39.1°C compared to 13.6°C). Based on our findings it seems that the MARST values recorded on the shaded face of the steep bedrock suggest a quite likely absence of permafrost, whereas the MARST values at TPR indicate a quite certain absence of permafrost.

Groundwater flow modeling of periods with periglacial and glacial climate conditions for the safety assessment of the proposed high-level nuclear waste repository site at Forsmark, Sweden

The impact of periglacial and glacial climate conditions on groundwater flow in fractured crystalline rock is studied by means of groundwater flow modeling of the Forsmark site, which was recently proposed as a repository site for the disposal of spent high-level nuclear fuel in Sweden. The employed model uses a thermal-hydraulically coupled approach for permafrost modeling and discusses changes in groundwater flow implied by the climate conditions found over northern Europe at different times during the last glacial cycle (Weichselian glaciation). It is concluded that discharge of particles released at repository depth occurs very close to the ice-sheet margin in the absence of permafrost. If permafrost is included, the greater part discharges into taliks in the periglacial area. During a glacial cycle, hydraulic gradients at repository depth reach their maximum values when the ice-sheet margin passes over the site; at this time, also, the interface between fresh and saline waters is distorted the most. The combined effect of advances and retreats during several glaciations has not been studied in the present work; however, the results indicate that hydrochemical conditions at depth in the groundwater flow model are almost restored after a single event of ice-sheet advance and retreat.

Soil Moisture Dynamics in a Mountainous Headwater Area in the Discontinuous Permafrost Zone of northern Mongolia

Soil moisture has widely been identified as a key factor for vegetation distribution in semi-arid areas. In the forest-steppe ecotone of the Khentii Mountains in northern Mongolia, soil moisture is directly controlled by exposition, slope, the presence or absence of permafrost, and vegetation cover. This study investigates the distribution of soil moisture and highlights the effects of a recent wildfire on this fragile ecosystem. Steep southerly exposed slopes are permafrost free and covered with steppe vegetation. Here, relatively warm and dry soils prevail, and high drying rates were observed following precipitation events during the summer period. The less inclined northerly exposed slopes are covered with taiga and feature relatively cold and wet soils overlying permafrost. Following a wildfire, the mean thickness of the organic surface layer drastically decreased from 0.15 m in the pristine taiga to 0.03 m in a heavily burned forest. As vegetation removal directly reduced evapotranspiration, soils in the burned forest were significantly the wettest and soil drying was less pronounced. Simultaneously, permafrost degradation was enhanced due to a significant increase in soil temperature. Thus, the conversion of forest areas to steppe after wildfires appears to be a long-term and possibly irreversible process during the ongoing climatic trend.

Role of Periglacial Processes in Epikarst Morphogenesis: A Case Study from Chełm Chalk Quarry, Lublin Upland, Eastern Poland

ABSTRACTPocket forms several decimetres in diameter, 0.5–1.5 m deep and infilled mainly with glaciogenic sands, silts and clays of Saalian age are commonly developed on the top of the karstified chalk massif of the Lublin Upland, eastern Poland. Analysis of lithofacies, particle‐size distribution and micromorphology of three pocket infills in the Chełm chalk quarry reveals a prominent clay cortex between the host chalk and the glaciogenic infill and suggests that periglacial processes have played a considerable role in the formation of the pockets and in the redistribution of their primary glaciogenic infill. A conceptual model for epikarst morphogenesis for the chalk karst of Lublin Upland is proposed, involving three stages. Stage I: In the absence of permafrost, precipitation water infiltrates unconsolidated glaciogenic deposits. Stage II: Periglacial transformation with underlying permafrost. Primary cryoturbation structures became protokarst forms, and then epikarst forms. Stage III: Degradation of the permafrost, with increased carbonate dissolution and development of a clay karst cortex. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Brief Communication: "An inventory of permafrost evidence for the European Alps"

Abstract. The investigation and modelling of permafrost distribution, particularly in areas of discontinuous permafrost, is challenging due to spatial heterogeneity, remoteness of measurement sites and data scarcity. We have designed a strategy for standardizing different local data sets containing evidence of the presence or absence of permafrost into an inventory for the entire European Alps. With this brief communication, we present the structure and contents of this inventory. This collection of permafrost evidence not only highlights existing data and allows new analyses based on larger data sets, but also provides complementary information for an improved interpretation of monitoring results.

Peatland exchanges of CO2 and CH4: The importance of presence or absence of permafrost

Peatland exchanges of CO2 and CH4: The importance of presence or absence of permafrost

Relationships between permafrost distribution and surface organic layers near Esso, central Kamchatka, Russian Far East

AbstractUnique boreal forest, consisting mainly of sparse larch (Larix cajanderii), creeping pine (Pinus pumila) and birch forest (Betula ermanii), occurs above the lower elevational limit of discontinuous permafrost of about 500 m above sea level in the area around Esso, central Kamchatka (∼56°N). Permafrost is present beneath surfaces covered by Sphagnum or creeping pine, but is absent beneath birch forest. Thermal conductivities in mid‐September are low in Sphagnum (0.07–0.19 W/(m·K)) and in the thick (13–20 cm) litter layer beneath creeping pine‐covered areas (0.06–0.09 W/(m·K)). Seasonal changes in the subsurface ground temperatures beneath creeping pine show that the surface litter prevents ground temperature increases at depth in summer, resulting in a thin active layer (several decimetres). The surface organic layer appears to be the most important factor controlling the presence or absence of permafrost in this area. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Permafrost Distribution in Peatlands of West-Central Canada During the Holocene Warm Period 6000 Years BP

The extent and distribution of permafrost in peatlands 6000 years ago was investigated in the present discontinuous and continuous permafrost zones of west-central Canada. Permafrost peatlands were cored at 161 locations and the floristic composition of the peat was determined from macrofossil analysis. The reconstructed paleoenvironments were used to indicate the presence or absence of permafrost at the time of peat formation. Chronological control was provided by radiocarbon dating of substantial changes in the peat sequences and by dates of basal peat deposits. Peatland formation began after glacial ice disappeared from the land surface of west-central Canada. Macrofossils indicate that most peatlands were fens without permafrost at 6 ka, except in the far north. Permafrost was already present in many areas of the Arctic, and peat accumulation occurred under permafrost conditions. In the southern area, permafrost development in peatlands began about 4 ka as the middle Holocene warm period came to a close. Permafrost development in the fens was associated with the development of a Sphagnum-dominated surface on the fens, caused by the onset of a cooler and moister climate. The insulation provided by the surface peat layer and by the associated tree cover initiated permafrost development in small lenses that coalesced into large permafrost bodies according to the prevailing climatic conditions. At the target date, 6 ka, permafrost was present in some peatlands, but the distribution zones shifted 300 to 500 km to the north, relative to the present zonation. It is estimated that this corresponds to a mean annual temperature that was about 5°C warmer than at present.

A first pan‐Arctic assessment of the influence of glaciation, permafrost, topography and peatlands on northern hemisphere lake distribution

AbstractThe locations of ∼200 000 large northern hemisphere lakes (sized 0.1 to 50 km2, northwards of ∼45°N latitude) are intersected with new global databases on topography, permafrost, peatlands and LGM glaciation to identify some first‐order controls on lake abundance and land area fraction at the pan‐Arctic scale. Of the variables examined here, glaciation history and the presence of some form of permafrost appear most important to the existence of lakes. Lake densities and area fractions average ∼300–350% greater in glaciated (versus unglaciated) terrain, and ∼100–170% greater in permafrost‐ influenced (versus permafrost‐free) terrain. The presence of peatlands is associated with additional ∼40–80% increases in lake density and ∼10–50% increases in area fraction. On average, lakes are most abundant in glaciated, permafrost peatlands (∼14.4 lakes/1000 km2) and least abundant in unglaciated, permafrost‐free terrain (∼1.2 lakes/1000 km2). Lake statistics are surprisingly similar across continuous, discontinuous and sporadic permafrost zones, decrease modestly in isolated permafrost, and drop sharply in the absence of permafrost. A simple calculation based on ‘space‐for‐time’ substitution for all glaciated/lowland terrain (∼2.7 × 107 km2, of which ∼48% is currently in some state of permafrost) suggests that in a ‘permafrost‐free’ Arctic, the number of lakes could be reduced from ∼192 000 to 103 000 (−46%) and their total inundation area reduced from ∼560 000 to 325 000 km2 (−42%). A more realistic scenario of thawed discontinuous, sporadic and isolated permafrost only, with a +10% lake increase in continuous permafrost and no change in permafrost‐free areas suggests reductions to ∼155 000 lakes (−15%) and ∼476 000 km2 (−15%), respectively. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

What Determines the Current Presence or Absence of Permafrost in the Torneträsk Region, a Sub-arctic Landscape in Northern Sweden?

In a warming climate, permafrost is likely to be significantly reduced and eventually disappear from the sub-Arctic region. This will affect people at a range of scales, from locally by slumping of buildings and roads, to globally as melting of permafrost will most likely increase the emissions of the powerful greenhouse gas methane, which will further enhance global warming. In order to predict future changes in permafrost, it is crucial to understand what determines the presence or absence of permafrost under current climate conditions, to assess where permafrost is particularly vulnerable to climate change, and to identify where changes are already occurring. The Torneträsk region of northern sub-Arctic Sweden is one area where changes in permafrost have been recorded and where permafrost could be particularly vulnerable to any future climate changes. This paper therefore reviews the various physical, biological, and anthropogenic parameters that determine the presence or absence of permafrost in the Torneträsk region under current climate conditions, so that we can gain an understanding of its current vulnerability and potential future responses to climate change. A patchy permafrost distribution as found in the Torneträsk region is not random, but a consequence of site-specific factors that control the microclimate and hence the surface and subsurface temperature. It is also a product of past as well as current processes. In sub-Arctic areas such as northern Sweden, it is mainly the physical parameters, e.g., topography, soil type, and climate (in particular snow depth), that determine permafrost distribution. Even though humans have been present in the study area for centuries, their impacts on permafrost distribution can more or less be neglected at the catchment level. Because ongoing climate warming is projected to continue and lead to an increased snow cover, the permafrost in the region will most likely disappear within decades, at least at lower elevations.