Absence Of Lime Research Articles

Use of Liming and Incidence of Diseases in Sugarcane

This study aimed to evaluate the incidence of red rot, brown leaf spot, and smut in ten sugarcane genotypes during two consecutive cycles, in the absence and presence of limestone. The experimental design consisted of randomized blocks with four replications, in the presence and absence of liming in the following sugarcane genotypes: G1 (RB002754), G2 (RB021754), G3 (RB041443), G4 (RB863129), G5 (RB93509), G6 (RB951541), G7 (RB962962), G8 (RB992506), G9 (SP79-1011), and G10 (VAT90-212) for genotype x environment interaction. The lowest incidences of red rot were observed in G3 (RB041443), G4 (RB863129), G8 (RB992506), and G9 (SP79-1011) for plant cane, and in G3 (RB041443), G4 (RB863129), G5 (RB93509), G8 (RB992506), and G9 (SP79-1011) for ratoon. All genotypes were susceptible to Colletotrichum falcatum, but limestone reduced its incidence in G3 (RB041443), G6 (RB951541), and G10 (VAT90-212) during the first growth cycle, and in G1 (RB002754), G2 (RB021754), G5 (RB93509), G6 (RB951541), G7 (RB962962), and G10 (VAT90-212) in the ratoon crop. Liming also reduced the incidence of brown leaf spot in G4 (RB863129), G6 (RB951541), and G9 (SP79-1011) in plant cane and G6 (RB951541) and G7 (RB962962) in the ratoon crop. Only the G9 genotype (SP79-1011) showed an incidence of smut. The genotypes had different incidence levels of red rot, brown leaf spot, and smut diseases, which varied in the presence of limestone. Limestone use reduced disease incidence as a function of genotype and cutting cycle.

The Transmembrane Adaptor Protein LIME Is Essential for Chemokine-Mediated Migration of Effector T Cells to Inflammatiory Sites.

Lck-interacting transmembrane adaptor 1 (LIME) has been previously identified as a raft-associated transmembrane protein expressed predominantly in T and B lymphocytes. Although LIME is shown to transduce the immunoreceptor signaling and immunological synapse formation via its tyrosine phosphorylation by Lck, a Src-family kinase, the in vivo function of LIME has remained elusive in the previous studies. Here we report that LIME is preferentially expressed in effector T cells and mediates chemokine-mediated T cell migration. Interestingly, in LIME-/- mice, while T cell receptor stimulation-dependent proliferation, differentiation to effector T cells, cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) function and regulatory T lymphocyte (Treg) function were normal, only T cell-mediated inflammatory response was significantly defective. The reduced inflammation was accompanied by the impaired infiltration of leukocytes and T cells to the inflammatory sites of LIME-/- mice. More specifically, the absence of LIME in effector T cells resulted in the reduced migration and defective morphological polarization in response to inflammatory chemokines such as CCL5 and CXCL10. Consistently, LIME-/- effector T cells were found to be defective in chemokine-mediated activation of Rac1 and Rap1, and dysregulated phosphorylation of Pyk2 and Cas. Taken together, the present findings show that LIME is a critical regulator of inflammatory chemokine-mediated signaling and the subsequent migration of effector T cells to inflammatory sites.

Chicken Manure: An Alternative in Increasing Production of Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)

Chicken manure is accessible to family farmers, is produced in large volumes, and has a low cost. Therefore, it can be an alternative to increase the productivity of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), which is a culture of socioeconomic importance. The objective of the study was to evaluate the productivity of sweet potatoes under different doses of chicken manure, with and without liming, comparing to the use of chemical fertilizer NPK, in very clayey soil, from the perspective of economic efficiency. The experiment was conducted in the field from September 2019 to March 2020 in Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. The experimental design was in randomized blocks with four replications, in a split-plot scheme 2 × 5 + 1 (presence or absence of liming; five doses of chicken manure; and NPK, respectively. The evaluated parameters were: total and commercial productivity; number of total and commercial tuberous roots; harvest index; individual fresh mass, length, and diameter of tuberous roots. The effect of chicken manure was not influenced by the liming and there are no differences in agronomic values related to NPK. The dose of chicken manure that results in maximum production of the queen sweet potato variety is approximately 13 t ha-1, producing 25.2 t ha-1, while the resulting dose in maximum profit is approximately 12 t ha-1 with a production of the 25.1 t ha-1. The selling production directly to the final consumer increased profit by approximately 57.3%. Purchasing the input directly from the manufacturer reduced costs by approximately 74.5%. The use of chicken manure has a greater economic advantage compared to NPK in very clayey soil.

Effects of lime, phosphorus and stocking rate on an extensively managed permanent pasture: botanical composition and groundcover

Low phosphorus (P) constrains productivity of many of the permanent pastures of south-eastern Australia where wool and meat production are important. Whereas the need for fertilisation with P is indisputable for many soils, the benefits of liming to ameliorate soil acidification are not always clear in terms of forage production or quality. This experiment, by measuring botanical composition and groundcover over 10 years, aimed to address the issue of forage composition and groundcover. Merino wethers were continuously grazed on a permanent pasture under two stocking rates (low and high) following treatments with three rates of surface-applied lime and two rates of P. The lime rates were: nil, and sufficient to raise the pHCaCl2 of the 0–10 cm soil layer to 5.0 and to 5.5. Phosphorus was added as two rates of single superphosphate: 125 kg ha–1 every 2–3 years, and 250 kg ha–1 every year. Two hypotheses were proposed: (i) as lime application rate increased, it would lead to the pasture swards having a higher percentage of species favourable for grazing animal production, and a higher level of sward groundcover would be maintained; and (ii) legume presence would be favoured by a higher level of applied P over the long term. The Millennium Drought (1997–2008), which coincided with this experiment (1998–2008), tended to mask or reduce lime effects; nevertheless, the higher legume content in the sward, as well as the superior groundcover found in the high lime–high P treatments at various times throughout the experiment and at its completion compared with the nil-lime control, indicated positive forage effects of lime application. Moreover, by the termination of the experiment in 2008, groundcover generally tended to be lower under nil lime than in treatments that had received lime. The higher proportion of legume in the sward was closely linked to greater applied P, although this did not occur at the low stocking rate in the absence of lime. By contrast, similar high P–low stocking rate treatments but with applied lime had the highest clover contents. It is proposed that the poor persistence of the treatment without lime may be due to a combination of poor legume seedset, because of excessive competition from accompanying grasses, and aluminium toxicity adversely affecting legume growth.

Kinetics of extraction of the silicon, aluminum, and calcium of the basalt from the Daubaba deposit

The article presents the results of the experimental studies of the kinetics of electric smelting of the basalt from the Daubaba deposit, the main components of which are 50.5% SiO2, 19.9% Al2O3, 9.3% CaO, 9.6% Fe2O3 with the extraction of the silicon and aluminum into the ferroalloy, calcium into the calcium carbide. The effect of electric smelting time (from 10 to 60 minutes) and the amount of lime (from 0 to 30% from weight of basalt) on the degree of extraction of Si and Al into the alloy and Ca into CaC2 was determined. The studies were carried out by the method of planning the experiments with the usage of roto-standard plans of second order (Box-Hunter plan) with exploring graphic optimization of technological parameters. The electric smelting was carried out in a graphite crucible. The mass of the furnace-charge in each experiment was 400 g. It was found that: extraction of Si, Al into the alloy, and Ca into the calcium carbide becomes noticeable in the first 10 minutes of the process; in the absence of lime, the maximum degree of extraction of the silicon, aluminum in the alloy and the calcium, respectively, contain 80.8%, 72.2% and 69% in 45 minutes; the presence of lime in the furnace-charge allows you to increase the degree of extraction of the calcium in the calcium carbide to 79.8%, however, at this time, the extraction of the silicon and aluminum decreases. To extract 77.1-86.8% of the silicon, 75-82% of the aluminum in the alloy and 75-79% of the calcium in the calcium carbide, the duration of the electric smelting should be 46-50 minutes and the amount of lime to 6.1% from weight of basalt.

Soil properties and productivity in two long-term crop rotations differing with respect to organic matter management on an Albic Luvisol

This study was based on a three-factor experiment carried out since 1980 on a loamy sand (Albic Luvisol) in which arable crops were grown in two 4-years rotations: RotA (grain maize, winter wheat, spring barley and silage maize) and RotB [grain maize, winter wheat plus mustard green manure (GM), spring barley and grass–clover ley (GCL)]. The soil in RotB with an increased input of OM (GM and 1-year GCL) accumulated significantly larger amounts of soil organic carbon and soil microbial biomass C, had higher activities of dehydrogenase and acid phosphatase enzymes and gave significantly higher winter wheat grain yields compared to the soil in RotA. However, in the absence of liming, the soil in RotB, contrary to that in RotA, became more acidic, had reduced activity of alkaline phosphatase and lower contents of Ca and Mg, and contained a diminished proportion of the >0.5 mm macroaggregates fraction. These soil deteriorative effects of crop rotations delivering larger amounts of OM have not been reported so far. In both rotations FYM applied once per 4-year rotation at 40 Mg ha−1 improved all the tested soil properties and had mitigating effects on the negative changes found in the soil of RotB.

Calagem e textura do substrato afetam o desenvolvimento de Campomanesia adamantium (Cambess.) O. Berg

Campomanesia adamantium is a native fruit of Cerrado that presents medicinal and nutritional properties. However, cultural practices for the species are not defined, such as the use of liming and substrate compositions. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the effect of liming levels on different substrate textures on the initial growth and nutrient content of C. adamantium plants. Five liming levels (0, 1, 2, 3 and 5 t ha-1) were studied in a substrate based on dystrophoric Red Latosol (LVd) and LVd+sand (1:1, v/v), arranged in outline factorial 5x2, in the delineation of randomized blocks, with four repetitions. In LVd substrate, the highest development in height (9.83 cm per plant); the diameter of the stem (2.13 mm per plant); SPAD index (38.37) and nutrient levels N (23.57 g kg-1); K (11.81 g kg-1), in the aerial part and N (22.26 g kg-1); P (6.66 g kg-1); K (7.91 g kg-1); Ca (6.56 g kg-1); and Mg (1.82 g kg-1) at the root, were under use of 5 t ha-1 of liming. However, the greater development and nutrient content using the LVd+sand substrate occurred under the absence of liming. This behavior shows that the plant responds to different ways when using draft on different substrates.

Liming on picloram leaching in dystrophic Red Yellow Latosol

ABSTRACT The practice of liming may influence the leaching of herbicides in soils, especially those with weak acid character, such as picloram. The study on leaching, preserving soil structure, is an important factor when one intends to understand the dynamics of herbicides and environmental impacts. Thus, the effect of liming on picloram leaching in a dystrophic Red Yellow Latosol under field conditions was studied using a bioindicator plant. The experiment was set up in a completely randomized design (CRD), in split-plot scheme, with factorial in the plot. The factors of the plot corresponded to two soil conditions (presence and absence of liming) and 5 picloram concentrations (0; 384; 768; 1152; 1536 g ha-1), and the factor of the subplot was 5 soil depths (0-8, 8-16, 16-24, 24-32 and 32-40 cm), with four replicates. Pipes were introduced into the soil and, in part of the treatments, limestone was applied superficially. After ninety days, the different doses of picloram were applied on the surface of each pipe and these pipes were withdrawn after an accumulated rainfall of 128 mm, to perform the bioassay using cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus). Evaluations of plant development (phytotoxicity and shoot biomass) were carried out 21 days after sowing. It was concluded that picloram showed high leaching rate under all studied conditions and liming increased picloram leaching at doses lower than 768 g ha-1.

Morphological adaptations of signal grass in response to liming and cutting severities

Changes in morphological composition and in the plant population were evaluated during late spring, summer and autumn, in swards of Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk in response to liming (C0.0, without liming; C0.7, limestone amount equivalent to 0.7 ton ha-1; and C1.0, limestone amount equivalent to 1.0 ton ha-1), which were subjected to severe or lenient cutting (40 or 60% of the pre-cutting height, respectively). Increased limestone doses did not result in higher herbage mass (HM), leaf area index (LAI) or proportion of leaves (%L) in the pre-harvest. However, lower proportion of dead material was registered in C0.7 treatment. The treatments C0.0 e C0.7 had higher %L during late spring and summer when associated to severe cutting regimes (R40%), although they reached the pre-harvest condition with lower HM and longer regrowth periods compared to lenient cuttings. The Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk modifies its shoot architecture during the growth season, indicating that lower pre-harvest heights are required during autumn. The absence of liming led to a sharp decreasing of base saturation and levels of K, Ca and Mg in the soil. The minimum annual amount of limestone required for B. decumbens correspond to 0.7 ton ha-1.

Decanted phosphate: effects on soil fertility and production of Marandu grass depending on soil acidity

Decanted phosphate (DP) is a by-product of wastewater treatment with phosphoric acid (H3PO4), used as phosphate fertilizer in pastures. This experiment was conducted in a greenhouse using a sandy clay loam Typic Haplustox to evaluate the potential effects of DP on soil fertility, and production and nutrition of the Marandu grass during three growths periods in the presence or absence of lime. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized experimental design with three replications in a 6 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement: six doses of phosphorus (P), two sources of P, and presence (P/L) or absence (A/L) of lime. We used 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 mg kg-1 of P, applied as DP or triple superphosphate (TS). Lime was applied to the soil to raise the base saturation to 60%. The DP can be recommended for fertilization in pastures because of its residual supply of P to plants and its ability to decrease the soil acidity and increase the calcium (Ca) content in soil and uptake by plants. The supply of P to the soil by DP is higher under low soil acidity. The use of DP did not alter the contents of zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), and copper (Cu) in shoots of the Marandu grass.

Lima bean nodulates efficiently with Bradyrhizobium strains isolated from diverse legume species

Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) is an important legume species that establishes symbiosis with rhizobia, mainly of the Bradyrhizobium genus. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of rhizobia of the genus Bradyrhizobium in symbiosis with lima bean, in both Leonard jars and in pots with a Latossolo Amarelo distrofico (Oxisol). In the experiment in Leonard jars, 17 strains isolated from nodules of the three legume subfamilies, Papilionoideae (Vigna unguiculata, Pterocarpus sp., Macroptilium atropurpureum, Swartzia sp., and Glycine max), Mimosoideae (Inga sp.), and Caesalpinioideae (Campsiandra surinamensis) and two uninoculated controls, one with a low concentration (5.25 mg L−1) and another with a high concentration (52.5 mg L−1) of mineral nitrogen (N) were evaluated. The six strains that exhibited the highest efficiency in Leonard jars, isolated from nodules of Vigna unguiculata (UFLA 03–144, UFLA 03–84, and UFLA 03–150), Campsiandra surinamensis (INPA 104A), Inga sp. (INPA 54B), and Swartzia sp. (INPA 86A), were compared to two uninoculated controls, one without and another with 300 mg N dm−3 (NH4NO3) applied to pots with samples of an Oxisol in the presence and absence of liming. In this experiment, liming did not affect nodulation and plant growth; the INPA 54B and INPA 86A strains stood out in terms of shoot dry matter production and provided increases of approximately 48% in shoot N accumulation compared to the native rhizobia populations. Our study is the first to indicate Bradyrhizobium strains isolated from the three legume subfamilies are able to promote lima bean growth via biological nitrogen fixation in soil conditions.

The plant stimulant humic acid extracted from organic waste recycled by composting combined with liming and fertilization

The disposal of organic waste can be an environmental problem; on the other hand, this waste can be the raw material for the production of biostimulants, among other recycling processes. The objective of this study was to recycle waste bovine manure and poultry litter through composting and isolate its humic acids in order to test their use, in the presence and absence of liming and fertilization, on corn plants as indicators. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design with four replications. The experimental unit was a vase of 1 dm3 filled with soil that received treatments generated by the combination of the factors under study: humic acids via seed, liming, and fertilization. After thirty days of the experiment, growth characteristics were measured to estimate the initial performance of the indicator corn plants in response to the treatments. The results showed that the combination of chemical fertilization with humic acids extracted from organic compounds increased the plants development. In conclusion, the use of biostimulants based on humic substances is positive and complementary to fertilizers used in agriculture, forming a superior combination. Such use is also recommended because it allows for the recycling of organic waste via composting, as well as the preparation of biostimulants for added technical, and potentially economic, value.

English

Soil fertilization and the management of green manure are needed to maintain and increase the soil fertility of Cerrado. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the concentration of nutrients in the shoots and roots of pigeon pea that was fertilized with phosphorus sources that are associated with liming in Cerrado Oxisol. This study was conducted in a greenhouse with a completely randomized design in a 3×2 factorial arrangement with twelve repetitions. The rock phosphate, triple superphosphate and control treatments were associated with the presence and absence of liming; the sources of phosphorus were evaluated. The chlorophyll index and the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur in the shoots and roots of pigeon pea that was grown for a period of 107 days were evaluated. In general, the chlorophyll index and nutrient concentration of pigeon pea did not differ when fertilized with phosphate rock and triple superphosphate. The fertilization with rock phosphate and triple superphosphate provides a greater nutrient absorption of pigeon pea in the presence of lime. Key words: Green manuring, Cajanus cajan, triple superphosphate, rock phosphate, chlorophyll index.

English

The aim of this work was to test fertilizers, liming, and levels of a soil conditioner produced from leonardite, composed by humic and fulvic acids on “iceberg” lettuce growth characteristics. The experimental design was completely randomized in a 5×3×2 factorial scheme, with 5 levels of soil conditioner (0, 20, 40, 100 and 200 L ha-1), 3 fertilizers [chicken manure, plant compost (plant residues and cattle manure) and mineral], in limed and unlimed soil, with five replicates. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse. Total shoot fresh and dry weight, shoot commercial fresh and dry weight, plants height, circumference, and number of leaves were evaluated as well as final soil pH and nutrient levels in leaves. Chicken manure rendered the greater circumference and shoot fresh commercial weight. Lettuce produced with chicken manure presented higher content of P, Ca, and Mg in leaves. Soil conditioner, in general, did not influence plant growth, except in its height, in the highest applied dose. With absence of lime, soil conditioner caused an increase of lettuce height with mineral fertilizers, and a decrease with plant compost.   Key words: Humic substances, Lactuca sativa L., chicken manure, compost.

Productivity of Marandu grass as a function of liming and phosphate fertilization in a Typic Hapludult from Amazonia

Little information is available concerning liming and phosphate fertilization for grassland maintenance in Amazonia. The dry-weight yield of Brachiaria brizantha was assessed over three harvest periods as a function of top-dressing with lime and phosphorus. The experimental design consisted of fully randomized blocks with four replicates arranged in subdivided plots according to the sampling season (plots), phosphorus application rate (0, 30 and 60 kg ha–1 P2O5) (subplots) and presence or absence of liming (sub-subplots). The grass was harvested by cutting 25 cm above the soil level, and the 0- to 5-, 5- to 10-, 10- to 20- and 20- to 40-cm soil layers were sampled 3, 9 and 13 months after liming. Top-dressing with phosphorus and lime had no effect on the dry-weight yield, nutrient uptake or crude-protein percentage of the Brachiaria brizantha shoots. However, phosphorus and lime treatment reduced the soil acidity and increased the calcium, magnesium and phosphorus levels in the upper soil layers.

Efficacy of Two Sulphur Fertilizers on Some Crops in Smallholder Farming in Kenya

In Kenya, smallholder farmer's production accounts for 75% of total agricultural output and 70% of marketed agricultural produce. However, productivity in the smallholder farms is still below potential due to continuous cropping with low and inefficient use of agricultural inputs, particularly fertilizers. Yields and fertilizer efficiency of high sulphur requiring crops such as maize, soybean and beans pulses could be improved by the use of appropriate sulphur fertilizers. Consequently, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in collaboration with OCP-Morocco initiated a three year multi-location on-farm trials to evaluate the efficiency of two OCP sulphur fertilizer formulations: NPS: 19:38:0:7S and NPS: 12:46:0:7S on maize, soybean and climbing beans. The field trials started in October and were conducted in 56 farms across four counties of Central Kenya. The trials design is randomized complete block (RCB) with farms in one cluster acting as replicates. Four treatments consisting of two OCP sulphur containing fertilizers (NPS), Diammonium phosphate and NP-23:23 were all tested against the farmer's practice (FP) on maize, soybeans and climbing beans. Results obtained indicated significant yield differences between treatments (P<0.05) within the counties. Majority of the sites exhibited crop responses to the different fertilizers but with large yield variations across the sites resulting from differences in soil fertility levels, sulphur status of cropped fields, crop management and rainfall/water regimes. However, these preliminary results from a single crop growing season will be compared with those from the next five seasons planned to be covered by the project. In the next cropping seasons the four fertilizers will be tested in presence and absence of lime. Soil sulphur status from analyses underway will be considered in the assessment of crop responses to the OCP NPS fertilizers.

Phosphorus fertilization and the saturation of bases for formation of seedlings of Swietenia macrophyla

Production of quality seedlings with high survival rate in the environment for reforestation purposes still faces many obstacles, especially with respect to mineral nutrition. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the response of mahogany (Swietenia macrophyla) seedlings to the supply of P and base saturation in a Typic Hapludox (Oxisol) with sandy layer surface. We used a completely randomized experimental design with four phosphorus rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg dm–3 of P), with Arad phosphate rock source, with two base saturation levels (natural at 25% and corrected to 45%) and three replications. We assessed the following parameters: soil chemical attributes, stem diameter, plant height, root dry matter, aerial part dry matter, total dry matter, and aerial part dry matter/root dry matter ratio. The content of P in the soil increased with P supply levels, in the absence and presence of liming, respectively. Liming improved soil attributes and the growth of mahogany seedlings. The combination of liming with phosphorus fertilization positively influenced plant height and aerial part and total dry matter. In the absence of liming, P doses as from 100 mg kg–1 negatively influenced the growth of mahogany seedlings.

Rheological and thermal properties of masa as related to changes in corn protein during nixtamalization

Traditional nixtamalization process produces a masa (dough) with appropriate cohesiveness and adhesiveness. Masa is considered as a network of solubilized starch polymers with dispersed, uncooked and swollen starch granules, cell fragments, proteins and lipids. In this work, the influence of proteins on the masa viscoelastic behavior was studied in corn kernels under different nixtamalization conditions. Scanning electron microscopy, SDS-PAGE, differential scanning calorimetry and rheological analysis were used to characterize the corn samples. The micrographs showed that the nixtamalization modified the shape of the starch granules and protein bodies, but no changes in appearance were observed when protein was removed. SDS-PAGE showed that corn proteins polymerized during cooking. Lime promoted both calcium–protein and protein–calcium–protein interactions mainly by calcium bridges, which were difficult to disrupt and increased the protein thermo-resistance. In the absence of lime, corn proteins polymerized mainly by disulfide bond cross-linking. Thermal analysis (DSC) indicated that the gelatinization temperature increased in lime-treated samples compared to control samples. Rheological studies showed that the corn protein exhibited greater influence on gel strength by enhancing the elastic character of the samples (G′). These results suggested that polymerized corn proteins stabilized the gel structure, which in consequence influenced the viscoelastic behavior of masa.

The effect of calcium and temperature on the transformation of sodalite to cancrinite in Bayer digestion

The transformation of sodalite (SOD) to cancrinite (CAN) in Bayer digestion has been studied for a range of temperatures and time intervals relevant to high temperature bauxite refining. The transformation extent was determined by quantifying phases in digestion residues using an XRD method. It has been found that the transformation is slow in the absence of lime but dramatically promoted by three different Ca-containing sources (calcium oxide, calcite and hydrocalumite) commonly found in the Bayer process. The amount of CAN produced, however, is not proportional to the quantity of Ca charged. The transformation process can be modelled by a form of the Avrami equation. The high activation energy (~ 218 kJ/mol) suggests that the transformation is a chemical process controlled by the nucleation and growth of CAN. The advantages of CAN formation include a reduction of soda in digestion residues and better control of silica and carbonate levels in Bayer liquor. The role of Ca, the efficiency of lime charge and the mechanism of the transformation process are discussed, especially within the context of high temperature and high silica bauxite processing.

Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in the presence of hydrated lime

To investigate the effects of hydrated lime on the survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts, the percentage viability of oocysts was assessed using fluorescent in situ hybridisation. In the absence of lime...