Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Research Articles

Experimental analysis of the effects of different production directions on the mechanical characteristics of ABS, PLA, and PETG materials produced by FDM

Abstract One of the most researched technologies among technologies used for producing complex and diverse parts today is additive manufacturing. In additive manufacturing, production can be carried out using thermoplastic and metal materials without requiring an additional process. Among the additive manufacturing technologies, the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) method is the most widely used method worldwide due to its affordability and broad application area. FFF is a method in which part formation is achieved by depositing melted materials on each other. In recent years, polymer materials such as polylactic acid (PLA), polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) have been frequently used in many industrial areas in the FFF method because they are lightweight, inexpensive, sustainable, and provide sufficient strength for engineering applications. This study conducted tensile, three-point bending, Charpy, and compression tests on PLA, PETG, and ABS materials at angles of 15°–75° and 30°–60°, and the results were compared.

Low‐Roughness 3D‐Printed Surfaces by Ironing for the Integration with Printed Electronics

The roughness of 3D‐printed surfaces poses a challenge when integrating fused filament fabrication (FFF) printing with printed electronics, leading to inconsistencies and breaks in the circuit traces. To improve the surface roughness, an ironing toolpath is proposed. The ironing toolpath involves the hot nozzle going over the printed surface with finer line spacing, remelting the surface to fill gaps, and creating a smooth finish. For further optimization, various ironing parameters are investigated including flow, speed, line spacing, and temperature. A wide range of materials is tested, including commonly used low‐temperature filaments (polylactic acid, polyethylene terephthalate, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) and high‐temperature filaments (polysulfone, polyetherimide, polyether ether ketone) suitable for integration with printed electronics and medical applications. To collect the extensive datasets, an automated measurement system is deployed. With this method, surface roughness reductions of up to 96.6% are achieved and significant trends are identified. Lastly, the integration of 3D printing with electronics is demonstrated by printing a high‐resolution strain gauge structure on top of an ironed surface and embedding it into fully printed tweezers which can be used in medical robotics. The insights on ironing extend beyond electronics and can also be valuable in other areas where low surface roughness of FFF‐printed parts is required.

On FFF-based 3D printing of wear resistive ABS-Graphene nanocomposites for rapid tooling in wet condition

Rapid tooling is the most important output of the additive manufacturing processes. The tribological, physical, and mechanical strength of the rapid tooling must be adequate for such applications. However, if rapid tooling is subjected to applications in wet atmospheric conditions, hydrophobicity must be considered to repel the water intake causing the collection of dirt and cleanness issues. The present study focused on investigations of the wear, hydrophobic and morphological parameters of 3D printed rapid tools. In the first stage, the acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)-Graphene composite is manufactured (in filament form of 1.75 ± 0.10 mm size) by varying the graphene loading (1–2 % by weight %), extrusion temperature (200–210 °C) and screw rotational speed (3-9RPM) on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array. The results revealed the wear rate of 0.00141 g/N-m when rapid tooling was 3D printed by taking filaments manufactured at parametric combination of 2.0 % Graphene loading, 200 °C extrusion temperature and 9RPM. The significantly increased hydrophobicity and wear resistance of ABS-Graphene composite as compared to pure ABS shows promising and potential candidates to be used for rapid tooling in wet conditions. The results are supported by morphological analysis of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD).

Agglomeration behavior and mechanism of polybutadiene latex by nanocomposite emulsion particles

Polymer agglomeration method is an efficient way to enlarge the particle size of polybutadiene latex (PBL). However, thus far, the particle size of polymer agglomerating agent and agglomerated PBL could not been accurately regulated, and there is a lack of investigation of agglomeration mechanism. Herein, an efficient way for regulating the particle size of the agglomerating agent and PBL was proposed. It was found that the particle size of agglomerating agents can be obtained in the range of 69 nm to 143 nm by adjusting the monomer content and the amount of α-methacrylic acid in the emulsion polymerization process. Then, the effects of different agglomeration parameters on the particle size of agglomerated PBL were investigated, including the amount, the α-MAA content and the particle size of agglomerating agent, agglomeration temperature and agglomeration time. The results indicated that the particle size of agglomerated PBL first increased and then decreased to a stable state with the increase of the amount of agglomerating agent. This phenomenon was quite different from the results of existing studies, which show that the particle size of agglomerated PBL gradually increases with the increase of the amount of agglomerating agent. According to the investigation of agglomeration process of PBL, the PBL agglomeration mechanism of dispersion-adsorption-coalescence-shrinkage was proposed. This study not only provides theoretical support for the PBL polymer agglomeration process, but also provides a practical way to increase acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) production efficiency.

An investigation on the toughening behavior and morphology of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene/polybutylene terephthalate blends reinforced by carbon nanotubes

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) polymers are widely exploited polymers in the plastics industry. In this research, PBT polymer is added into ABS polymer as a second phase due to its good fluidity and some superior mechanical characteristics. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are added as a reinforcement into the ABS/PBT polymer blend (80/20). Standard samples of mechanical tests including tensile, flexural, and impact were made by injection molding and standard samples of fracture tests were made by hot press method. The essential work of fracture (EWF) method was used to check fracture toughness. The presence of PBT into ABS improved its tensile and flexural strength while it diminished the impact strength and fracture toughness of ABS. The addition of carbon nanotubes into ABS/PBT blends increased its tensile and flexural strength, impact resistance as well as fracture toughness. The results of microscopic tests demonstrate a relatively uniform distribution of carbon nanotubes in the polymer blend. In addition, the morphological observations illustrate a rather proper adhesion between carbon nanotubes and the polymeric matrix. As importantly, investigations on the fractured sections of fracture specimens revealed that the nanocomposites containing CNTs have a tendency toward a ductile failure in comparison with ABS/PBT polymer blend.

Integrated computational modeling of large format additive manufacturing: Developing a digital twin for material extrusion with carbon fiber-reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

Material extrusion (MEX) continues to be a pivotal additive manufacturing (AM) process, involving the selective heating and layer-by-layer deposition of material. However, conventional finite-element models (finite-element analysis) face limitations in accurately simulating the MEX process, highlighting the need for experimental validation. This paper highlights an advanced material modeling technology that streamlines the development of composite parts using large format AM (LFAM). It specifically focuses on a thermoplastic acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) matrix composite material enriched with 20% short carbon fibers. The study employs integrated computational materials engineering, integrating (i) the manufacturing process, (ii) the material’s microstructure, (iii) homogenization techniques, and (iv) the performance of the final part. The development of a digital twin for pellet extrusion is proposed, emphasizing the importance of micro-structure characterization to account for warpage and residual stresses that lead to part distortion. The demonstrator manufactured for this study is a wind turbine mold of a blade section. Experimental tests revealed an elastic modulus of 5.5 GPa and a hardening modulus of 2.4 GPa for the composite. The numerical microscopic model showed a 16% error in the elastic modulus compared to experimental results. The study concludes that the homogenization techniques are effective in predicting the elastic properties but lack accuracy in the plastic region. The application of the model to the LFAM process of pellet extrusion is demonstrated, with simulation results showing a maximum deformation close to the center of the wind turbine blade mold.

Three-dimensional printing with waste acrylonitrile butadiene styrene: Processing and characterization

Three-dimensional (3D) printing of waste plastic such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is challenging because multiple heating cycles and irregular cooling cause accumulation of stress in 3D-printed structures, which significantly affects mesostructured and fiber-to-fiber bond strength. Hence, this study demonstrates the ability to print high-quality parts via 3D printing using ABS waste. The different weight proportions (100, 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, 50/50) of recycled ABS (RABS)/virgin ABS (VABS) are selected for experimentation. It is found that increasing VABS content in RABS significantly improved the physical properties of samples. Due to VABS blending in RABS, the average enhancement in flexural strength (Sf), flex modulus (Ef), and work of fracture (WOF) are 11.49%, 5.45%, and 17.31%, respectively, when compared with 100% RABS samples. Similarly, the average increase in Young’s modulus (E), tensile strength at yield (Ty), and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) are 7.71%, 5.19%, and 3.51%, respectively. The samples printed with 50% RABS/50% VABS blends show superior mechanical properties than others, also the properties of 90% RABS/10% VABS and 80% RABS/20% VABS are very close to 100% VABS samples. Hence, this study provides unique opportunities for the sustainable use of waste ABS using 3D printing technology.

Manufacture of thermoplastic molds by fused filament fabrication 3D printing for rapid prototyping of polyurethane foam molded products

PurposePolyurethane (PUR) foam parts are traditionally manufactured using metallic molds, an unsuitable approach for prototyping purposes. Thus, rapid tooling of disposable molds using fused filament fabrication (FFF) with polylactic acid (PLA) and glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETG) is proposed as an economical, simpler and faster solution compared to traditional metallic molds or three-dimensional (3D) printing with other difficult-to-print thermoplastics, which are prone to shrinkage and delamination (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polypropilene-PP) or high-cost due to both material and printing equipment expenses (PEEK, polyamides or polycarbonate-PC). The purpose of this study has been to evaluate the ease of release of PUR foam on these materials in combination with release agents to facilitate the mulding/demoulding process.Design/methodology/approachPETG, PLA and hardenable polylactic acid (PLA 3D870) have been evaluated as mold materials in combination with aqueous and solvent-based release agents within a full design of experiments by three consecutive molding/demolding cycles.FindingsPLA 3D870 has shown the best demoldability. A mold expressly designed to manufacture a foam cushion has been printed and the prototyping has been successfully achieved. The demolding of the part has been easier using a solvent-based release agent, meanwhile the quality has been better when using a water-based one.Originality/valueThe combination of PLA 3D870 and FFF, along with solvent-free water-based release agents, presents a compelling low-cost and eco-friendly alternative to traditional metallic molds and other 3D printing thermoplastics. This innovative approach serves as a viable option for rapid tooling in PUR foam molding.

Finite Element Analysis of 3D Printed Block Prepared of Sustainable Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)

ABS and chain-branched amylopectin exhibit poor processing capabilities, making them unsuitable for 3D printing utilizations. While ABS exhibits excellent mechanical properties with high processing costs, it lacks the practical requirements of PLA, an environment-friendly polymer with poor mechanical performances. Studying the toxicity of 3-D printer emissions and the causes of toxicity both in vivo and in vitro is necessary in light of the rapidly expanding applications of 3-D printing technological advances, the documented emissions, and the possible adverse reactions from exposed to those emissions. Despite these limitations, ABS and PLA continue to be developed for 3D printing applications. Several mechanical behaviors, including tensile strength, creep, and fatigue, are examined in the study to determine the structural integrity and durability of a 3D-printed ABS square block. The results of the safety factor analysis show a minimum value of 0.1823, indicating the presence of potential failure points and the need for design optimization. The material can last long under dynamic loads, as shown by the fatigue study. This study not only improves ABS parts in real-life uses but also helps grasp their strength better. It gives clues for their future design and making. Using experimental and simulation data, the study optimizes 3D printing parameters and improves ABS materials’ structural efficiency by integrating finite element methods with practical manufacturing outcomes.

3D printer emissions elicit filament-specific and dose-dependent metabolic and genotoxic effects in human airway epithelial cells.

Three-dimensional (3D) printers have become popular educational tools in secondary and post-secondary STEM curriculum; however, concerns have emerged regarding inhalation exposures and associated health risks. Current evidence suggests that filament materials and site conditions may cause differences in the chemical profiles and toxicological properties of 3D printer emissions; however, few studies have evaluated exposures directly in the classroom. In this study, we monitored and sampled particulate matter (PM) emitted from acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) filaments during a 3-hour 3D printing session in a high school classroom using aerosol monitoring instrumentation and collection media. To evaluate potential inhalation risks, Multiple Path Particle Dosimetry (MPPD) modeling was used to estimate inhaled doses and calculate in vitro concentrations based on the observed aerosol data and specific lung and breathing characteristics. Dynamic light scattering was used to evaluate the hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI) of extracted PM emissions dispersed in cell culture media. Small airway epithelial cells (SAEC) were employed to determine cellular viability, genotoxic, inflammatory, and metabolic responses to each emission exposure using MTS, ELISA, and high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), respectively. Aerosol monitoring data revealed that emissions from ABS and PLA filaments generated similar PM concentrations within the ultrafine and fine ranges. However, DLS analysis showed differences in the physicochemical properties of ABS and PLA PM, where the hydrodynamic diameter of PLA PM was greater than ABS PM, which may have influenced particle deposition rates and cellular outcomes. While exposure to both ABS and PLA PM reduced cell viability and induced MDM2, an indicator of genomic instability, PLA PM alone increased gamma-H2AX, a marker of double-stranded DNA breaks. ABS and PLA emissions also increased the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, although this did not reach significance. Furthermore, metabolic profiling via high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and subsequent pathway analysis revealed filament and dose dependent cellular metabolic alterations. Notably, our metabolomic analysis also revealed key metabolites and pathways implicated in PM-induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and respiratory disease that were perturbed across both tested doses for a given filament. Taken together, these findings suggest that use of ABS and PLA filaments in 3D printers within school settings may potentially contribute to adverse respiratory responses especially in vulnerable populations.

A comprehensive review of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) method using PLA, ABS, and PET-G polymers

A notable increase in prominence has been observed in the application of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing, resulting in a transformative influence on manufacturing processes in various sectors. The paramount importance of careful material selection for fully harnessing the capabilities of this technology is acknowledged. Within the scope of this comprehensive study article, an examination is conducted regarding the characteristics, benefits, and limitations associated with the three primary materials used in FDM 3D printing, namely Polylactic Acid (PLA), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), and Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PET-G). Each of these materials is recognized for possessing unique characteristics that render them suitable for a diverse array of applications, including educational and creative pursuits, as well as industrial prototyping and the creation of functional components. Importantly, the potential to enhance the mechanical, thermal, and electrical characteristics of these substances has been demonstrated through the integration of additives, such as carbon nanotubes, nanoclay, and graphene. Through the cooperative efforts of material scientists, engineers, and 3D printing enthusiasts, it is anticipated that FDM 3D printing will emerge as an essential and invaluable instrument across a wide range of disciplines.

Ispitivanje i optimizacija površine zavara i mehaničkih performansi termoplastičnih delova proizvedenih aditivnom proizvodnjom i zavarenih zavarivanjem trenjem

This study presents an experimental investigation into the weldability of ABS M30 (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) plates produced by Additive Manufacturing (AM) using Friction Stir Welding (FSW). The effects of FSW process parameters on the yield stress and their optimal levels were determined using the Taguchi method. The optimal welding parameters were found to be a 16 mm tool shoulder diameter, 800 rpm tool rotation speed, and 10 mm/min traverse speed. The weld area of each sample welded using FSW was examined at a macroscopic level. The direction of tool rotation significantly affects the quality and strength of the FSW. When the FSW was performed with a clockwise rotation of the welding tool, a perfect weld could not be achieved. The tunnel effect resulted in gaps in the weld area of the samples at high rotation speeds. Differences were observed in the density between the weld area of the samples and the main parts.

Impact of Element Layout and Notching Technique on the Fracture Toughness of FFF-Processed Thermoplastics

This work explores the effects of notching method and element layout on the fracture loading properties of thermoplastic materials processed using fused filament fabrication (FFF). Three common thermoplastic materials were used (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polylatide, and polycarbonate). Four different notching methods were used, with printed and machined notches and with and without pre-cracking on ASTM D5045 compact tension specimens (n = 36). It was concluded that the notching method has a statistically significant impact on the sample preparation and that pre-cracking is necessary in all cases. Using this information to prepare specimens, a designed experiment using four different element layout strategies and two different nozzle sizes was completed with a total of 72 tests. The layout pattern was shown to have a very strong effect on the maximum fracture load, with the nozzle size showing a smaller but still statistically significant impact. With the exception of one layout using polycarbonate with likely design-driven printing defects, the results were very consistent through several replications. The results of this study are useful for making design decisions with FFF-processed materials, for better understanding the impact of the process design, and for working toward standardized printing and testing methods for additive manufacturing.

Application of 3D printing technology for green synthesis of Fe2O3 using ABS/TPU/chlorella skeletons for methyl orange removal.

Photocatalysis is widely acknowledged as an efficient and environmentally friendly method for treating dye-contaminated wastewater. However, the utilization of powdered photocatalysts presents significant challenges, including issues related to recyclability and the potential for secondary pollution. Herein, a novel technique based on 3D printing for the synthesizing of iron oxide (Fe2O3) involving chlorella was presented. Initially, chlorella powders were immobilized within acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) substrate plastics using melt extrusion technology. Subsequently, these composite materials were transformed into ABS/TPU/chlorella skeletons (ATCh40), through fused deposition molding (FDM) technology. The integration of Fe2O3 onto the ATCh40 (ATCh40-Fe2O3) skeletons was accomplished by subjecting them to controlled heating in an oil bath. A comprehensive characterization of the synthesized materials confirms the successful growth of Fe2O3 on the surface of 3D skeletons. This strategy effectively addresses the immobilization challenges associated with powdered photocatalysts. In photocatalytic degradation experiments targeting methyl orange (MO), the ATCh40-Fe2O3 skeletons exhibited a remarkable MO removal rate of 91% within 240 min. Under conditions where the pH of MO solution was maintained at 3, and the ATCh40-Fe2O3 skeletons were subjected to a heat treatment in a 150 °C blast drying oven for 2 hours, the degradation rate of MO remained substantial, achieving 90% removal after 6 cycles. In contrast, when the same synthetic procedure was applied to ABS/TPU (AT) skeletons, the resulting product was identified as α-FeOOH. The MO removal rate by the AT-α-FeOOH skeletons was considerably lower, reaching only 49% after 240 min. This research provided a practical approach for the construction of photocatalytic devices through the use of 3D printing technology.

Application of finite element analysis in the development of the pedal assembly of the Formula Student racing car

The study is focused on presenting an assessment of additive manufacturing usage in modern technological processes, including the manufacturing of parts of the racing car participating in Formula Student project. It shows the necessity of simulating physical processes during the design stage using the finite element analysis. The issues of calculating the strength of pedals of various functional purposes are considered. The boundary conditions imposed on the accelerator pedal are presented. It was found that loads applied with an offset to the edge of the support platform cause higher stresses in the item. The distribution patterns of the safety factor of an accelerator pedal created by additive method from materials: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyamide Nylon 6/6 and polyamide Nylon 6/6 reinforced with fiberglass are presented. The results of modeling the rigidity of the pedal structure and the maximum stresses arising in it under load are indicated. The results of simulation of the prefabricated structure of the accelerator pedal with an aluminum alloy lever with a pedal plate obtained by additive manufacturing are shown.

A review on the surface modification of materials for 3D-printed diagnostic devices.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing in tissue engineering and biosensing of analytes by using biocompatible materials or modifying surface structures is an upcoming area of study. This review discusses three common surface modification techniques, viz. alkaline hydrolysis, UV light photografting, and plasma treatment. Alkaline hydrolysis involves the reaction of an alkaline solution with the surface of a material, causing the surface to develop carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. This technique can enhance the biocompatibility, surface wettability, adhesion, printability, and dyeability of materials, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate, and polylactic acid (PLA). This review also mentions details about some of the surface-modified 3D-printed diagnostic devices. Although most of the devices are modified using chemical processes, there are always multiple techniques involved while designing a diagnostic device. We have, therefore, mentioned some of the devices based on the materials used instead of categorising them as per modification techniques. 3D printing helps in the design of sophisticated shapes and structures using multiple materials. They can, therefore be used even in the design of microfluidic devices that are very useful for biosensing. We have also mentioned a few materials for printing microfluidic devices.

Compound reconfigurable symmetric slotted mimo antenna with abs enclosure for indoor wireless applications

This research work reports the Compound Reconfigurable MIMO Antenna (CRMA) utilizing RF PIN diodes for indoor wireless communication applications. The proposed CRMA comprises a quad-symmetric Slotted Radiator (SSR) with a common ground structure. It can perform frequency, polarization and pattern switching at frequency standards such as IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n (2.4/5.5 GHz), IEEE 802.11ax (6 GHz) and 5G/n78 (3.5 GHz). A parasitic element of a modified U-shaped stub is utilized to achieve polarization reconfiguration. Further, to achieve pattern reconfiguration two crossed-shaped slots are implemented. The proposed antenna achieves a bandwidth of 320 MHz at 2.4 GHz, 950 MHz at 3.5 GHz and 1870 MHz at 5.5 GHz. At these resonant frequencies, the antenna is capable of producing both circular and linear polarization with a pattern tilt towards different angular directions such as 30°, 120°, 210°, 300°, 330°, 240°, 150°, 60°. The designed CRMA follows orthogonal orientation and exhibits better diversity performance with ECC < 0.1, DG > 9 dB, TARC < -13 dB and CCL < 0.27 bps/Hz. Also, an Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) enclosure is designed and fabricated to validate the performance of the antenna with casing, further to analyze the suitability of the antenna for indoor wireless applications

Compressive strength assessment in additively manufactured sustainable poly lactic acid specimens as per ASTM D695 standard

Relative benefits over traditional manufacturing processes have made fused deposition modeling (FDM)-based 3D printing as prevalent among various fields and sectors. However, the mechanical traits of 3D-printed FDM parts are still a matter of research that primarily depends upon the material used. In addition to acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) material, another sustainable polymer used in the FDM is polylactic acid (PLA). This study evaluated the compressive strength of 3D-printed PLA specimens consistent with ASTM D695 standard. The test specimens were simulated in ANSYS software to assess the compression strength and deformation of the specimens. Five ASTM specimens were additively manufactured on a Makerbot printer with a 0.3 mm layer resolution, 100% infill rate, 215°C extrusion temperature and standard build speed. The specimens were conditioned in line with ASTM D695 standard. The compressive strengths of the specimens measured on a universal testing machine were correlated with the simulated results. The compressive strength of the specimens was found to be close to the standard strength.

ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ ПРОЧНОСТИ КОМПОЗИТОВ НА ОСНОВЕ 3D-ПЕЧАТНЫХ КАРКАСОВ, ПРОПИТАННЫХ ТЕРМОРЕАКТИВНЫМ КОМПАУНДОМ С РАЗЛИЧНЫМИ РАЗБАВИТЕЛЯМИ

The study results of the strength of composite materials based on 3D-printed frames made by the FDM technology from ABS plastic with 33% infill are presented. The frames were impregnated with a thermosetting compound based on epoxy resin ED-20 with a TETA hardener with the introduction of acetone diluents in an amount of up to 1.5 wt. % and DEG-1 in an amount of up to 5 wt. % to reduce viscosity.

Surveillance Camera Using Wi-Fi Connection

This research paper aims to design an energy-efficient surveillance camera utilizing the ESP32-CAM module, incorporating Wi-Fi connectivity, and using 3D printed custom case made from ABS plastic. The central goal is to determine the most effective video streaming protocol for transmitting real-time data to a web-based interface that manages the camera. The camera prototype is developed through a technical feasibility study and prototype construction methods, with a primary focus on assessing power consumption across various protocols including HTTP, RTP, RTSP, and WebSocket. The findings indicate that WebSocket emerges as one of the most optimal and power-efficient protocols for streaming video from the ESP32-CAM web server to a client device. This superiority arises from WebSocket's browser-based approach, enabling full-duplex communication through a single TCP connection, thereby facilitating real-time interaction between the client and server.