Rock Abrasion Research Articles

A Critique on the Correlations Between Rock Abrasiveness, Hardness, and Mechanical Characteristics: Implication of LCPC Abrasiveness and Breakability Coefficients

A Critique on the Correlations Between Rock Abrasiveness, Hardness, and Mechanical Characteristics: Implication of LCPC Abrasiveness and Breakability Coefficients

Disc cutter wear/life analysis in a long tunnel excavated in strong to very strong, abrasive rocks

Disc cutter wear/life analysis in a long tunnel excavated in strong to very strong, abrasive rocks

Rock abrasiveness prediction based on multi-source physical, mechanical and mineralogical properties

Rock abrasiveness prediction based on multi-source physical, mechanical and mineralogical properties

Experimental and numerical investigation of the TBM disc cutter wear using a new tunnel boring machine laboratory simulator

One of the essential and practical issues on TBM performance is the wear during the excavation process of abrasive and resistant rock. The wear of the disc cutter, which is caused by the gradual and uniform reduction of the diameter of the disc cutter, is caused by the rock-machine interaction during excavation, and various factors can intensify this phenomenon and reduce the wear life of the disc cutter. To obtain a proper view of the relationship between the operating parameters of the excavation machine and the disc cutter wear, a new laboratory device has been designed and built in the mechanized excavation laboratory of the Sahand University of Technology. By using this device, the amount of wear of cutting tools in excavation machines can be obtained against rough rock samples, and from the results, the amount of wear of cutting tools of excavation machines can be minimized so that the efficiency of the excavation machine can be increased. In the current research, the laboratory wear results obtained from this device have been compared with those obtained from the numerical modelling of the same device in PFC3D discrete element software, both for the cutting blades and the sample itself. This research showed that in the first abrasion stage of the sample, the difference in the abrasion weight of the experimental study and numerical modelling for the samples varies from 0.91 to 0.768 g, and the average is 0.202 g. Also, the difference between the abrasion percentage of laboratory study and numerical simulation for the samples varies from 6 to 14 %, and the average is 10 %. In step 2 of abrasion, the difference in the abrasion weight of the experimental study and numerical modelling for the samples varies from 0.118 to 0.556 g, and the average is 0.278 g. Also, the difference in the abrasion percentage of laboratory study and numerical simulation for the samples varies from 7 to 14 %, and the average is 11 %. The results of the new tunnel boring machine laboratory simulator revealed insights into wear behavior during different stages of excavation.

Experimental investigation of abrasive potential and drilling efficiency at elevated temperatures via Cerchar rock scratching

To see if and how abrasive potential as well as drilling efficiency change due to rock heating, Cerchar scratch tests were performed on six types of rock at eight temperature levels. Results indicate that rock abrasivity is temperature-dependent. The change of rock abrasivity expressed by the Cerchar abrasivity index can be divided into two stages on either side of 500 °C. Meanwhile, the drilling efficiency expressed by the Cerchar abrasion ratio can significantly be enhanced, especially when the heating temperature exceeds 500 °C. The observation of damaged surfaces indicates that the material volume removed from the rock surface increase after rock heating. The worn steel surfaces (115CrV3 tool steel) shows the severe plastic deformation and fracturing associated with cracking, delamination, dislocation and chipping of the steel.

Prediction of formation abrasiveness under the action of a PDC bit based on the fractal dimension of a rock surface

During rock drilling, a drill bit will wear as it breaks the rock. However, there is no uniform grading standard for rock abrasiveness. To solve this problem, the wear mechanisms of a polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit and the formation it is drilling into are analyzed in depth, and an abrasiveness evaluation method based on the fractal dimension of the rock surface topography is established. Initially, a three-dimensional digital model is generated from a scanning electron microscope image of the rock after drilling; next, an evaluation of the irregularities on the rock surface is performed using an adapted Weierstrass–Mandelbrot (W-M) function to ascertain the fractal dimensionality. Then, the microcontact characteristics of the contact surface between the formation and the PDC bit are analyzed, and the distribution of the microconvex contact points of the two-body friction pair in a region is obtained. Because the sliding friction between the drill bit and the rock produces a large amount of heat, according to the contact area formula of the friction surface and heat conduction theory, the temperature rise and overall temperature distribution of the formation and PDC bit under the condition of sliding friction are revealed, and the real contact area between the formation and the drill bit within a certain temperature range is obtained. Finally, the evaluation index of rock abrasiveness under sliding conditions is established by adopting the wear weight loss of the rock cutting tool per unit volume as the index of rock abrasiveness, and the model is verified by a microdrilling experiment. The research in this paper is highly important for improving the rock-breaking efficiency and bit service life during drilling.

Abrasivity database of different genetic rocks based on CERCHAR Abrasivity Test

Rock abrasivity is one of the main factors affecting the wear of rock-cutting tools, which is usually quantified by the CERCHAR Abrasivity Index (CAI). Researchers and engineers study tool wear and predict tool life based on the CAI of rocks. However, there is still a lack of a dataset on rock properties, especially the abrasivity of various rocks. This paper reports the abrasive dataset of 10 kinds of rocks, including sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, and igneous rocks, with the aid of the CERCHAR Abrasivity Test and digital measurement techniques. The dataset comprises rock abrasivity data, point cloud data for visualization, scratch photos, CERCHAR Abrasivity Test force data, and mechanical properties (uniaxial compressive strength) of rock samples. This dataset facilitates future research on rock abrasivity and rock-cutting tool wear.

Introducing a new rock abrasivity index using a scaled down disc cutter

Rock abrasivity influences wear of cutting tools and consequently, performance of mechanized tunneling machines. Several methods have been proposed to evaluate rock abrasivity in recent decades, each one has its own advantages. In this paper, a new method is introduced to estimate wear of disc cutters based on rock cutting tests using scaled down discs (i.e. 54 and 72 ​mm diameter). The discs are made of H13 steel, which is a common steel type in producing real-scale discs, with hardness of 32 and 54 HRC. The small-scale linear rock cutting machine and a new abrasion test apparatus, namely University of Tehran abrasivity test machine, are utilized to perform the tests. Tip width of the worn discs is monitored and presented as the function of the accumulated test run to classify the rock abrasion. Abrasivity tests show that by increasing the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of the rock samples, wear rate is doubled gradually that reveals the sensitivity of the test procedure to the main parameters affecting the abrasivity of hard rocks. For the rocks with the highest UCS, the normal wear stops after performing 5 to 10 rounds of the tests, and then, deformation of the disc tip is detectable. Two abrasivity indices are defined based on the abrasivity tests results and their correlations with Cerchar Abrasivity Index (CAI) and UCS are established. Comparison of the established correlations in this study with previous investigations demonstrates the sensitivity of the indices to the parameters affecting wear of the disc cutters and repeatability of the outputs obtained from abrasivity tests using scaled down discs. Findings of this study can be used to enhance the accuracy of rock abrasivity classifications.

ESTIMATING THE HARDNESS AND ABRASION PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS FROM CERCHAR INDENTATION DEPTH (CID

The most known and applied method for determining the abrasivity of rocks is the Cerchar Abrasivity Index (CAI). Properties of rocks such as abrasive mineral content, density, strength, and degree of cementation are the main factors affecting abrasivity, and these parameters likewise control their hardness properties. In this study, the average scratch depth formed on the rock surface after the CAI test was determined and it was investigated whether this calculated new parameter had the properties to represent the rock. Measurements were taken from four points along the scratch line formed on the surface with the help of a comparator and the average value was defined as the Cerchar Indentation Depth (CID). Measurements have shown that igneous rocks have CID values in the range of 0.01 mm-0.68 mm. Apart from the CID parameter, nine different properties (hardness, abrasivity, and physical) of fifty igneous rocks were tested. Statistically significant results were obtained by establishing relationships between CID and other rock mechanics tests. In CAI tests, it has been shown that CID measurements can be determined very sensitively if well-leveled core samples with parallel lower and upper surfaces are used. It has been determined that the CID value is directly related to the investigated rock properties and can be used as very useful experimental data in estimation studies.

Water saturation effects on rock abrasivity and TBM tunneling efficiency

Tunnel boring machine (TBM) tunneling efficiency is influenced by surrounding rocks, TBM design, and interaction between the TBM cutter and rocks. Using a case study from a water conveyance tunnel project located in northwestern China and involving five different lithologies (metamorphic andesite, sandstone, granite, quartz schist, and quartz diorite), this work investigates the water saturation effects on Cerchar abrasivity index (CAI) and its correlations with other physical and mechanical rock properties and TBM disc cutter and energy consumption. The results show that water saturation reduces CAI for all examined rocks except for the quartz diorite at the 90 % confidence level. CAI of saturated rocks (CAIsat) has statistically better correlations with weighted Mohs hardness value of rock minerals (Ha), equivalent quartz content (EQC), and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), than CAI of dry rocks (CAIdry). The in-situ construction data analyses suggest that the average disc cutter consumption increases exponentially with the rise of CAI values in both dry and saturated conditions, and the water saturation effects significantly reduce the disc cutter consumption within medium-hard and hard surrounding rocks. Both disc cutter and specific energy consumption have a quadratic relationship with the ratio of the maximum cutter spacing to penetration depth (Smax/P), and water saturation can significantly shift the quadratic relationships. Optimal Smax/P ranges for minimizing the disc cutter and energy consumption are recommended for different rocks under dry and saturated conditions. The findings from this study can support estimating cutter and energy consumption with considerations of groundwater effects.

The effect of microwave treatment on the abrasivity of igneous rocks

The effect of microwave treatment on the abrasivity of igneous rocks

Numerical research on rock cutting by abrasive jet under confining pressure based on SPH-FEM method

On the basis of experimental verification, the methods of smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH) and finite element methods (FEM) were used to study the process of abrasive jets cutting rock under confining pressure conditions. The results show that the failure of rock was mainly due to compressive and shear stresses, while the propagation of cracks was dominated by tensile stress. Under confining pressure, the cracks in rocks were mainly horizontal. The damage depth significantly decreased with increasing confining pressure, while the damage width first decreased and then increased. The critical distance between two slits without penetration is four times the diameter of the abrasive jet. When the cutting direction of the abrasive jet was perpendicular to the maximum stress, the relief range of the confining pressure formed was larger. The results have certain guiding values for revealing the mechanism of abrasive jet impact rock breaking and engineering applications.

Assessment of Bohme surface abrasion resistance of natural stones by simple and nonlinear multiple regression methods

Natural stones are widely used in the construction sector and the physico-mechanical features are very important for them in terms of areas of use. Abrasion is an important phenomenon for causes to decrease in aesthetical and mechanical properties. The Bohme surface abrasion (BSA) test is the widely used test method to determine abrasion resistance, but it is time-consuming, very difficult, and expensive to apply. Because of such difficulties, this study has been conducted to indirectly determine the BSA value of natural stones by some practical methods. For this purpose, BSA, Point load index (Is50), Shore Schlerescope hardness (SSH), Brinell hardness (HB), Rock impact hardness number (RIHN), Coefficient of rock strength (CRS), Crushability index (CI), Impact strength index (ISI), Water absorption (WA), Unit weight (UW), and Porosity (Pg) properties of a total of up 119 rocks, mainly of Turkish rocks, were determined. The main objective of this article is to develop some estimation models for the BSA of different rocks. Two different methods have been utilized in the modeling of data, including simple regression analysis (SRA), and nonlinear multiple regression analysis (NMRA). In addition to the SRA performed using all data sets, the SRA analysis was deepened by classification according to origin, porosity, and strength. A large number of estimation equations were obtained by NMRA performed by applying three different models. The actual BSA values obtained from the laboratory study and the BSA values obtained from the models analyzed with SPSS software were compared using ANOVA analysis and various graphics. The most successful SRA equations derived using the entire dataset were obtained with HB, Is50, and SSH parameters, respectively. In general, there is a significant correlation between various rock properties and BSA, except CRS and CI. For NMRA models constructed with at least three independent variables, the highest predictive power belongs to the equations using (Is50 / HB / UW), (Is50 / HB / CRS), and (Is50 / UW / WA / Pg) parameters, respectively. Rock abrasion has a complex nature. The results of this study strongly support that it is an accurate approach to seek a solution to this complex problem by using parameters such as hardness, strength, and physical properties in the same model.

Experimental investigation of the failure of conical picks under thermal and abrasive effects

Conical picks are widely used in fields such as tunnel excavation, and high temperatures often occur on the surfaces of conical picks during the hard rock cutting process. To explore the influence of temperature on the wear of conical picks, a rotary cutting test was arranged. The cutting head torque, heat distribution and wear on the conical pick at different rotating speeds and cutting depths were explored. Moreover, the working process with and without cooling liquid was taken into consideration, and the mass losses of the conical pick under those conditions were analyzed. The experimental results showed that under cooling liquid conditions, the maximum temperature on the conical pick decreased by 230°C, and the mean mass loss of the conical pick decreased by 15.8 g. Therefore, high temperature could not be ignored in hard rock cutting. On the basis of these findings, a method for the measurement of rock abrasiveness was proposed in this paper, and different from previous research, the thermal effect was taken into consideration. A test bed for rock abrasiveness measurement was assembled in which a sintered WC-Co rod was used for rotary grinding on the rock sample, and the mass loss of the grinding rod was determined to evaluate the rock abrasiveness. The loading force between the grinding rod and rock sample was considered in the measurement of rock abrasiveness. The results showed that the mass losses of sintered WC-Co rods increased with the loading force. In addition, the characteristics of oxygen found from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) showed that peeling and cracking could be found at distances of 5 mm and 10 mm from the end face of the grinding rod, and the increased oxygen content suggested obvious oxidization at those regions as well.

Effects of Heat Treatment and Confining Pressure on Rock Abrasivity and Its Ramifications for Bit Wear and Drillability in Deep Geothermal Reservoirs

Effects of Heat Treatment and Confining Pressure on Rock Abrasivity and Its Ramifications for Bit Wear and Drillability in Deep Geothermal Reservoirs

Application of Rock Abrasiveness and Rock Abrasivity Test Methods—A Review

The processes of rock formation have long been known and widely described in many literature items worldwide. Due to the multitude of occurring rock types, they are distinguished by various properties. For many decades, scientists worldwide have been determining various parameters by which these properties of rocks can be described. Tests of these parameters are commonly performed in many research centres worldwide. Depending on the scientific discipline, some researchers focus on geological properties (colour, structure, texture, chemical composition). Other researchers focus on physical and mechanical properties: hardness, density, strength properties, compactness, etc. Among them, abrasiveness and abrasivity can also be distinguished. In terms of nomenclature, they are very similar and often confused. Even within the academic community, researchers often use the names interchangeably, which needs to be corrected. This article aims to explain the difference between rock abrasiveness and rock abrasivity, classify methods for their assessment and present their practical applications in the mining and construction industry. It should be emphasized here that abrasiveness is determined when we are interested in the abrasive wear of natural stone and abrasivity when we are interested in the wear of the tool with which we cut the stone. The purpose of this article is also to let the reader decide whether to carry out an abrasiveness or abrasivity test and which method to use.

A study on predicting the wear of TBM disc cutters using Cerchar testing

Estimating the disc cutter wear life or change time is a critical part of performance prediction for the application of hard rock TBMs. This paper examines the disc cutter wear rate and the number of required discs during the excavation of the Kanisib (or Zab) tunnel based on the transpositioning concept. The study covers the disc changes due to the normal wear process, leaving out those replaced due to mechanical/bearing failures. This study also analyzes TBM field performance and actual cutter consumption using a method, specific mass loss per volume (SMLV) excavated. SMLV considers the wear mass of a disc cutter relative to the disc cutters replacement for a given volume of excavated rock. Generally speaking, the disc SMLV incorporates critical parameters, and a formula is introduced to calculate it from the rock properties. The new model can be utilized for estimating disc life for any disc cutter size, diameter, and tip width. The predictive model developed in this study allows for estimating cutter life based on the location of disc cutters on the cutterhead. The proposed model uses rock mass parameter, namely the rock quality designation (RQD), and rock material parameters measured in a laboratory, including rock abrasion and strength. Rock abrasion is estimated by Cerchar abrasivity index (CAI) or modified Cerchar abrasivity index (MCAI). Furthermore, a new approach to Cerchar indices has been used, which is based on the pin mass loss instead of pin tip flat size, and as a result, new indices called CAIML and MCAIML are introduced. The correlation between predicted and observed values shows that the proposed model for specific mass loss per volume can predict the normal wear of disc cutters. Furthermore, the Cerchar indices calculated using the pin mass loss offered better correlations with field data than those specified based on the diameter of the pin tip flat. Overall, MCAIML exhibited the best correlation with the field observations compared to the other Cerchar indices.

Mining Machines for Comprehensive Mechanized Mining of Bauxite

The mining machine for bauxite is the key equipment for the mechanized mining of underground bauxite ore. The mining machines for shearing and loading bauxite ore have been studied in this paper from three aspects: the determination of key technical parameters, the in-situ tests, optimization, and improvement. Mechanical and physical parameters of bauxite ore, such as high tensile strength, no-cleavage, and abrasion properties, have a great impact on the determination of key technical parameters of the mining machine. The conventional conical picks which are widely used in mining equipment drums for soft rock, such as coal mines, are not suitable for bauxite and other high-abrasion ore rocks. The chisel pick is theoretically a better choice. The main faults of the mining machine for bauxite during the in-situ tests are closely related to the high abrasion of bauxite rock, especially for the abrasion of conical picks and the walking actuator of the traction part. So the second-generation mining machine should be optimized from the selection of types, linear speed, and cutting depth of picks, from selecting wear-resistance material for the walking actuator of the traction part and designing a more suitable structure for the walking actuator of the traction part. The research results have important theoretical significance for the design of mining machines for bauxite.

Flash heating boosts the potential for mechanochemical energy sources for subglacial ecosystems

Subglacial environments harbour a diversity of microbial ecosystems capable of influencing biogeochemical cycles. However, the darkness and isolation of subglacial environments limit the energy sources available for microbial metabolism. A recently recognised energy source for these microbes in wet-based regions is the rock-water reactions that occur after the mechanical fracturing of glacial bedrock. These mechanochemical reactions produce H2 and H2O2 at 0°C from reactions with mineral surface defects (Si• and SiO•) and release Fe from within the mineral structures, providing electron donors and acceptors for microbial metabolism. However, the production of H2O2 and H2 may be underestimated as temperatures at rock abrasion sites can increase substantially above 0°C as glaciers “slip and grind” rocks, potentially accelerating the rates of mechanochemical reactions. Despite this, the effect of rapid heating on subsequent low-temperature mechanochemical reactions has yet to be examined. Here, we investigate H2, H2O2, and Fe production during low-temperature (0 °C) incubations of water with a range of ground rocks and minerals following “flash heating” to 30, 60, or 121 °C. We show that transient increases (as little as 5–10 min of heating) to moderate temperatures (30 or 60 °C) can significantly increase the rate of H2 production, while short-term heating to 121 °C generates larger bursts of H2. In addition, pyrite is easily crushed, potentially releasing large quantities of Fe2+ into subglacial systems and promoting mechanochemical reactions due to the resulting large surface area (10× larger than other materials). We provide the first evidence for H2 production from water reactions with crushed pyrite and suggest that crushed pyrite has a greater influence on subglacial H2O2 production than silicates. We conclude that electron donors in the form of Fe2+ and H2 bursts can be produced in subglacial ecosystems, which may be coupled to substantial concentrations of H2O2 produced from crushed pyrite. This suggests that rock–water mechanochemical reactions may be a greater source of energy for subglacial environments than previously recognised.

Experimental study on the sandstone abrasiveness via mineral composition and microstructure analysis

Rock abrasiveness is an important factor affecting the tool's lifetime and efficiency in breaking a rock. Characterizing rock abrasiveness helps in the design, optimization, and mean-life prediction of tools. X-ray diffraction, cast thin section analysis, and CERCHAR abrasiveness tests were performed on 18 different sandstones to characterize rock abrasiveness and explore new methods for characterization. The relationship between the mineral composition and microstructure of sandstone and abrasiveness was investigated. The results show that different structural maturities have varying effects on abrasiveness. In addition, the higher the structural maturity, the more the abrasiveness. Furthermore, in sandstones of the same structural maturity, the abrasiveness increases with equivalent quartz content (EQC). The texture coefficient (TC) and CERCHAR abrasiveness index (CAI) of sandstones with the same structural maturity showed a good linear relationship. Moreover, the correlation coefficients considering the combined parameters are above 0.85. Therefore, obtaining the microstructure and mineral composition of sandstone can effectively characterize rock abrasiveness. It also provides a new method for predicting the abrasiveness of the rock in the well.